‘The impact of Affirmative Action was limited in the 1960s and 1970s.
Level
A Level
Year Examined
2023
Topic
The USA, 1944–92
👑Complete Model Essay
‘The impact of Affirmative Action was limited in the 1960s and 1970s.
The Limited Impact of Affirmative Action in the 1960s and 1970s
The statement that "The impact of Affirmative Action was limited in the 1960s and 1970s" presents a view that requires careful examination. While it's undeniable that significant inequalities persisted by the end of the 1970s, arguing that Affirmative Action's impact was "limited" necessitates a nuanced analysis of its achievements and limitations within the socio-political context of the time.
Undoubtedly, Affirmative Action policies implemented during the 1960s and 1970s yielded tangible results. Kennedy's 1961 order mandating affirmative action in federal contractor appointments, solidified by Johnson's establishment of the Office of Federal Contract Compliance, marked a significant step towards equality. Nixon's subsequent expansion of these policies to include women and the implementation of "goals and timetables" further demonstrated a commitment to addressing historical imbalances.
Statistical evidence supports the positive impact of these initiatives. As stated, between 1974 and 1980, Black and female representation in managerial and official positions within federal contractor companies grew at twice the rate observed in businesses not subject to Affirmative Action legislation. Furthermore, large corporations like AT&T, IBM, and Sears Roebuck witnessed a notable rise in minority employment after adopting affirmative action policies, showcasing the potential of these measures to drive positive change.
However, it's crucial to acknowledge the limitations of Affirmative Action during this period. Despite these advancements, stark racial and gender disparities persisted. Women continued to face a significant wage gap, and Black Americans grappled with disproportionately high unemployment rates, lower average family income, and limited access to higher education. The persistence of these disparities underscores the argument that Affirmative Action's impact was indeed limited in its capacity to fully bridge the entrenched inequalities rooted in systemic discrimination.
Critics of Affirmative Action often cite these persistent disparities as proof of its inadequacy, even suggesting that it fostered negative consequences such as lower self-esteem among beneficiaries and the promotion of underqualified individuals. However, these claims lack substantial evidence. In fact, Affirmative Action enjoyed bipartisan support, with opinion polls revealing high levels of public approval for its principles.
In conclusion, while Affirmative Action's impact in the 1960s and 1970s can be deemed limited in its ability to completely eradicate deeply ingrained inequalities, it's essential to recognize its tangible achievements. The policy led to a measurable increase in minority and female representation in various sectors, demonstrating its potential to effect positive change. The persistence of disparities highlights the need for a multifaceted approach to achieving true equality, one that goes beyond Affirmative Action to address the systemic roots of discrimination. The progress made during this period, though incomplete, laid the groundwork for future efforts to dismantle structural barriers and strive for a more just and equitable society.
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Introduction
Briefly explain Affirmative Action and the view that its impact was limited in the 1960s and 1970s. Briefly state your line of argument – that whilst there were limitations, it is inaccurate to say its impact was limited.
Affirmative Action in the 1960s and 1970s
This section should discuss the measures taken to implement affirmative action. Mention key legislation, executive orders (Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon), and the establishment of relevant bodies.
Evidence of Limited Impact
Acknowledge the argument that Affirmative Action had a limited impact. Provide statistical evidence of continued inequality (wage gap, unemployment rates, educational attainment) for women and Black Americans.
Evidence of Significant Impact
Present counter-arguments to demonstrate the significant impact of Affirmative Action. Highlight the statistical evidence of increased representation in management positions due to federal contractor regulations. Provide examples of companies like AT&T, IBM, and Sears Roebuck that saw positive changes.
Addressing Criticisms and Assessing Long-Term Impact
Discuss criticisms leveled against Affirmative Action (unpopularity, low self-esteem, promotion of unqualified individuals). Analyze the validity of these claims and offer counterpoints (bipartisan support, public opinion polls). Emphasize the importance of Affirmative Action as a step towards addressing historical discrimination.
Conclusion
Reiterate the argument that while Affirmative Action in the 1960s and 1970s did not erase inequality, it had a significant impact. Acknowledge the limitations but emphasize its role in starting to address historical injustices and creating a foundation for future progress.
Extracts from Mark Schemes
The Impact of Affirmative Action in the 1960s and 1970s
“The impact of Affirmative Action was limited in the 1960s and 1970s.” Discuss this view.
In 1961, Kennedy ordered affirmative action in appointments by federal contractors and created the Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity. Johnson established the Office of Federal Contract Compliance to enforce this and in 1967 extended it to women. Nixon authorized goals and timetables to correct underutilization of minorities and women. There was some reaction to the principle of affirmative action in education by the Bakke Supreme Court ruling of 1978, but in 1979 there was an order for affirmative action to support women in business in a National Women's Business Enterprise Policy.
Statistical evidence showed that between 1974 and 1980, federal contractors added Black and female officials and managers at twice the rate of businesses not bound by affirmative action legislation. There were also examples of large companies (e.g., AT&T, IBM, Sears Roebuck) increasing minority employment as a result of adopting affirmative action policies.
The problem in assessing the impact is that in absolute terms by the end of the 1970s there was still considerable inequality. Women continued to earn less. Black people continued to have twice the unemployment rate of White people, half the average family income, and half the proportion who attend four years or more of college. But without affirmative action, it could have been worse.
It has been suggested that Affirmative Action was unpopular, that it led to lower self-esteem among women and Black Americans, and it led to the promotion of underqualified people, but there is no real justification for these claims. The policy was pursued by both parties and opinion polls showed quite high levels of approval for the principle. Its achievement could be seen in a desire to recognize and remedy a long period of discrimination, even though on its own it could not create a new society, especially in the short term.