‘By 1204 Outremer had failed to recover from the crisis of 1185–1187.’ Assess the validity of this view.
Level
A Level
Year Examined
2021
Topic
The Age of the Crusades, c1071-1204
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‘By 1204 Outremer had failed to recover from the crisis of 1185–1187.’ Assess the validity of this view.
By 1204 Outremer had failed to recover from the crisis of 1185–1187. Assess the validity of this view.
The years 1185-1187 saw the Latin East thrown into turmoil, culminating in the disastrous Battle of Hattin and Saladin’s recapture of Jerusalem. This marked a turning point in the history of the Crusader States and by 1204, the situation remained precarious. While Outremer had not been entirely extinguished, it had certainly been severely weakened and its future remained uncertain. Whether it had fundamentally ‘failed’ to recover is debatable, as both sides of the argument have their merits.
Arguments supporting the view of failure:
A key argument supporting the view of failure is the undeniable fact that Jerusalem, the spiritual heart of Outremer, remained firmly in Ayyubid hands. Despite several large-scale crusades, including the Third Crusade led by figures like Richard I of England, no serious attempt was made to retake Jerusalem. Richard himself marched on the city twice but ultimately retreated, recognizing the difficulty of holding it even if captured. This inability to recapture Jerusalem, the very symbol of Christian pilgrimage and crusading zeal, underscored the limitations of Frankish power in the region.
Furthermore, while the Franks achieved some military successes, the Ayyubids were far from decisively defeated. Saladin’s death, though a blow, did not lead to the collapse of his empire as many had hoped. His brother, Al-Adil, succeeded him and continued to pose a formidable threat to the remaining Frankish territories. The Ayyubids remained a powerful and unified force, effectively challenging the long-term viability of Outremer.
Adding to the challenges, the Fourth Crusade dealt a devastating blow to relations with Byzantium. The capture and sack of Constantinople in 1204, a Christian city, by crusaders ostensibly on their way to the Holy Land, severed ties with a potential ally and shocked the Christian world. This act of betrayal poisoned any chance of future cooperation and left Outremer more isolated than ever.
Perhaps most importantly, the limited territorial gains achieved by large-scale expeditions like the Third, Fourth, and German Crusades suggested a fundamental flaw in the very concept of Outremer. Despite significant manpower and resources invested, the Franks struggled to regain their lost territories. This reality undermined the crusading ideal, discouraged further support from the West, and cast a shadow of doubt and instability over the future of the Latin East.
Arguments challenging the view of failure:
However, focusing solely on these setbacks risks overlooking the resilience demonstrated by Outremer. Following 1187, the Franks managed to establish a narrow but viable coastal strip of territories. The capture of strategically important cities like Acre and Jaffa during the Third Crusade, along with Beirut during the German Crusade, provided a foothold in the region. Furthermore, the acquisition of Cyprus, through marriage alliances, offered a valuable base of operations and a source of resources for the Franks.
Moreover, Saladin’s aura of invincibility was shattered by defeats like those at Arsuf and Jaffa. These victories, though not decisive, demonstrated the potential for Frankish military success and exposed the fragility of Ayyubid alliances. Saladin’s successors, like Al-Adil, were forced to focus on consolidating power and placating internal factions, diverting their attention away from the Frankish threat and buying Outremer valuable time.
Crucially, despite the loss of Jerusalem, the Treaty of Jaffa in 1192 secured continued Christian access to the holy city. While falling short of outright reconquest, this agreement allowed for pilgrimage to continue, fulfilling a key objective of the crusades and demonstrating a degree of diplomatic success for the Franks.
The establishment of a Latin Empire in Constantinople, while morally reprehensible, did offer a potential advantage for Outremer. This new Crusader state, led by Baldwin of Flanders, presented a seemingly strong and unquestionably loyal ally in the East, unlike the often unreliable Byzantines of the past.
Furthermore, the internal divisions that had plagued the Kingdom of Jerusalem were addressed with the accession of Henry of Champagne. Resolving the disputes over the kingship brought much-needed stability and unity to the Frankish leadership, allowing them to present a more united front against their enemies.
Conclusion:
By 1204, the situation in Outremer presented a mixed picture. While the loss of Jerusalem and the inability to dislodge the Ayyubids pointed towards failure, the survival of the Crusader States and their adaptation to a new reality argued against a wholly negative assessment. The Franks displayed a degree of resilience, securing a coastal foothold, leveraging diplomacy, and benefiting from internal Ayyubid divisions. However, the shadow of the Fourth Crusade and the ever-present threat of Muslim resurgence hung over any potential for long-term recovery. Therefore, while it is tempting to view 1204 as marking the failure of Outremer to recover, a more nuanced perspective recognizes both the setbacks and the limited successes that characterized this period. Ultimately, the fate of Outremer hung in the balance, reliant on a delicate balancing act of alliances, military strength, and, perhaps most importantly, continued support from the West.
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By 1204 Outremer had failed to recover from the crisis of 1185–1187. Assess the validity of this view.
This essay will assess the validity of the claim that Outremer had failed to recover from the crisis of 1185-1187 by 1204. It will analyse arguments both supporting and challenging this view, concluding with a balanced assessment of the situation in Outremer at this time.
Arguments supporting the view
Several factors suggest that Outremer had not fully recovered by 1204. Firstly, the loss of Jerusalem in 1187 remained a major blow. Despite subsequent crusades, including Richard I’s, Jerusalem was not recaptured. This demonstrates the difficulty of regaining lost territory and the ongoing threat posed by Muslim forces. Secondly, although the Franks achieved some military victories, they did not decisively defeat the Ayyubids. Saladin’s successors, like his brother Al-Adil, continued to pose a threat to Frankish possessions. Moreover, the Fourth Crusade's capture and sack of Constantinople worsened relations with the Byzantines, undermining potential alliances. Finally, the limited gains of subsequent crusades, such as the Third, Fourth, and German crusades, highlight the challenges of establishing a stable Christian presence in the region. Even with significant manpower contributions, territorial gains remained limited, demonstrating the inherent weaknesses of Outremer and the dwindling effectiveness of the crusading ideal.
Arguments challenging the view
However, other factors suggest that Outremer was not in a state of complete failure by 1204. The Franks established a narrow coastal strip of territory following 1187, with important acquisitions such as Acre, Jaffa, and Beirut. The acquisition of Cyprus, through Isabella’s marriage to Aimery, further strengthened Frankish control in the region. Moreover, Saladin's death and the subsequent factionalism within his empire created opportunities for the Franks. The Frankish victories at Arsuf and Jaffa demonstrated Saladin’s vulnerability and the fragility of his alliances. Al-Adil’s focus on consolidating his own power diverted resources and attention away from the Frankish territories. The 1192 Treaty of Jaffa also ensured Christian access to Jerusalem, although limited, which was symbolically significant. Finally, the establishment of the Latin Empire in Constantinople, under Baldwin of Flanders, created a potential ally in the East. This alliance was more reliable than the previous relationship with the Byzantine Empire. The Franks also resolved their internal power struggles following Henry of Champagne’s ascension to the throne of Jerusalem.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the situation in Outremer by 1204 was complex and cannot be easily categorized as a complete failure or success. While the loss of Jerusalem and the unresolved conflict with the Ayyubids indicate significant challenges, the establishment of a new coastal state, the weakening of the Ayyubid empire, and the creation of potential alliances offered a glimmer of hope. Outremer demonstrated resilience in the face of adversity, surviving and even thriving in certain aspects. The Fourth Crusade's focus on Egypt suggests a shift in strategy, acknowledging the difficulty of recapturing Jerusalem, while the continued existence of a thriving Frankish state in the eastern Mediterranean indicates a more nuanced picture than one of complete failure. Ultimately, the situation in Outremer by 1204 was a mix of setbacks and successes, with both challenges and opportunities for the future.
Extracts from Mark Schemes
Arguments supporting the view:
The city of Jerusalem was not recaptured, despite several large-scale crusades. Richard of England even marched towards the city twice, but aborted his mission, believing that he would not be able to hold it even if he could take it.
Despite some military victories, the Ayyubids were not decisively defeated by the Franks. When Saladin died, he was succeeded by his brother and they continued to pose a threat to Frankish possessions in the region.
Relations with the Byzantines were made even worse by the capture and sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade.
The limited gains of expeditions such as the Third, Fourth and German crusades seemed to prove that Outremer was a fundamentally flawed idea. Even with huge injections of manpower, territorial gains were very limited. This diluted the crusading ideal and meant that the future was very unstable.
Arguments challenging the view:
A narrow coastal strip of territories was established in the years after 1187 through the capture of places such as Acre and Jaffa (Third Crusade) and Beirut (German crusade). Cyprus was also a very useful addition to the Latin-controlled territories (after Isabella married Aimery of Cyprus, this connected the two kingdoms).
The myth of Saladin’s invincibility was broken, eg at Arsuf and Jaffa – and the fragility of his Muslim alliances were clear to see. Al-Adil would need to spend time uniting his own forces, rather than focusing solely on the Franks. Saladin’s ‘empire’ would be riven by factionalism in the years after his death.
Christian access to Jerusalem was ensured through the 1192 Treaty of Jaffa.
The establishment of a Latin Empire in Constantinople under Baldwin of Flanders meant an unquestionably friendly ally was now present in the East – the Byzantines had been an unreliable ally in the past.
The factional infighting amongst the Franks over the kingship of Jerusalem was sorted out following the accession of Henry of Champagne.
Students may argue that the situation by 1204 was rather mixed in terms of success and failure. Certainly, the main disaster of the loss of much of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and County of Tripoli was not rectified and the focus of the Fourth Crusade on Egypt initially indicates a realisation that the recapture of these lands would be very difficult. However, that Outremer survived and became a viable state in the years after 1187 points to a more promising picture than one of ‘complete failure’. Any supported and balanced argument will be rewarded.