To what extent were purges and terror, in the years 1918 to 1941, a response to real threats to the Leninist and Stalinist regimes?
Level
A Level
Year Examined
2020
Topic
Tsarist and Communist Russia 1855-1964
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To what extent were purges and terror, in the years 1918 to 1941, a response to real threats to the Leninist and Stalinist regimes?
To what extent were purges and terror, in the years 1918 to 1941, a response to real threats to the Leninist and Stalinist regimes?
The Soviet Union under Lenin and Stalin was characterized by widespread purges and terror, targeting individuals and groups deemed threats to the regime. While some argue that these actions were necessary responses to real dangers, others contend that they were primarily driven by ideological paranoia and a desire to consolidate power. This essay will examine both perspectives to determine the extent to which purges and terror from 1918 to 1941 were a response to genuine threats.
Real Threats and Justifiable Responses
There were undoubtedly real threats to the Leninist regime in the aftermath of the Bolshevik Revolution. The Civil War (1918-1921) saw opposition from various groups, including ex-Tsarists, right-wing factions, and even moderate and radical elements within the Socialist Revolutionary Party and the Mensheviks. The "Red Terror," a period of intense state-sanctioned violence, aimed to eliminate these threats and consolidate Bolshevik control. In this context, the purges and terror can be seen as a brutal but necessary response to a volatile and dangerous situation.
Stalin, too, faced challenges during his rule. The forced collectivization of agriculture in the early 1930s provoked resistance from the peasantry, particularly the wealthier kulaks. This period also saw opposition from within the Party, with figures like Nikolai Bukharin criticizing Stalin's policies. The "Great Purge" of the mid-to-late 1930s, which targeted party members, military leaders, and ordinary citizens, can be interpreted as a response to these perceived threats. The assassination of Sergei Kirov, a prominent Bolshevik leader, in 1934, further heightened Stalin's paranoia and provided a pretext for intensifying the purges.
Ideological Paranoia and Power Consolidation
However, it is crucial to acknowledge that the purges and terror often extended far beyond the elimination of genuine threats. The Red Terror, for example, claimed victims amongst ordinary citizens, including the bourgeoisie, kulaks, and religious figures, who were targeted based on their class or beliefs rather than any direct opposition to the regime. Similarly, during the Great Purge, many individuals were accused based on flimsy evidence, forced confessions, or simply because they fell under suspicion due to their background or position. This suggests that ideology and a desire to create a society purged of "undesirable" elements played a significant role in driving the terror.
Furthermore, the purges served Stalin's goal of consolidating his power and eliminating potential rivals. The removal of experienced military leaders during the Great Purge, for instance, weakened the Red Army and might be seen as a tactic to eliminate those who could challenge Stalin's authority. Additionally, the show trials and public confessions of former Bolshevik leaders like Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Bukharin created an atmosphere of fear and silenced any potential dissent within the Party.
Conclusion
In conclusion, while the Leninist and Stalinist regimes undoubtedly faced real threats, the purges and terror that characterized this period cannot be solely attributed to rational responses to these dangers. While eliminating genuine opponents, the purges were also fueled by ideological paranoia, a desire for social engineering, and a ruthless pursuit of absolute power. The arbitrary and widespread nature of the terror, targeting not only actual dissidents but also ordinary citizens and even loyal party members, suggests that the motives extended far beyond simply neutralizing threats. Ultimately, the purges and terror were a tragic manifestation of the totalitarian nature of the Soviet regime under Lenin and Stalin.
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To what extent were purges and terror, in the years 1918 to 1941, a response to real threats to the Leninist and Stalinist regimes?
This essay will assess the extent to which purges and terror, in the years 1918 to 1941, were a response to real threats to the Leninist and Stalinist regimes. It will argue that while some purges may have been a response to real threats, particularly during the Civil War, the scale and brutality of the purges, particularly under Stalin, were largely driven by ideological paranoia and a desire to consolidate power.
Arguments supporting the view that purges and terror were a response to real threats:
1. The 'Red Terror' (1918-1921): This period of repression was arguably a response to the real threat posed by counter-revolutionaries, ex-Tsarists, and anti-communist groups during the Civil War. The removal of these groups was essential for the survival of the Leninist regime.
2. Threats to Stalin's leadership (1932 onwards): Stalin faced opposition from 'old Bolsheviks' who challenged his ideology, as well as from the 'Ryutin platform' which criticized his leadership. The Party purge of 1933-1935 aimed to eliminate such political challenges.
3. The Kirov Assassination (1934): While the extent to which Kirov posed a real threat is debatable, Stalin likely perceived him as a rival. His assassination provided a pretext for further purges, targeting individuals like Zinoviev, Kamenev, and Bukharin whose views were seen as a threat to Stalinist policies.
4. The Yezhovschina (1936-1938): This period of intense repression targeted political dissidents, including old Bolsheviks, and culminated in the assassination of Leon Trotsky, a genuine political rival to Stalin. This suggests a desire to remove potential plotters and consolidate Stalin's power.
Arguments challenging the view that purges and terror were a response to real threats:
1. The 'Red Terror' and ideological persecution: The 'Red Terror' also targeted ordinary individuals deemed 'class enemies' like the bourgeoisie, kulaks, and religious figures. This suggests a wider agenda of ideological cleansing beyond simply dealing with real threats.
2. Attacks on non-political groups: Stalin's regime targeted industrial managers in the Shakhty Trial and kulaks during collectivisation campaigns, not due to their political opposition, but because they did not fit the ideological structure of the regime.
3. The Great Purges and the lack of real opposition: The Great Purges targeted party workers, military commanders, and intelligence officers, many of whom were unlikely to be genuine opponents of the regime. There is limited evidence that even major figures like Bukharin were actively opposing Stalin. Yezhov's downfall was due to 'excessive zeal' rather than opposition to Stalin.
4. The 'Great Terror' and arbitrary persecution: The 'Great Terror' extended to ordinary citizens under the quota system, where individuals were persecuted without any real reason, based on accusations from vindictive neighbours.
Conclusion:
While purges and terror in the USSR during the period 1918-1941 were presented as responses to real threats, it is clear that the scale and brutality of the purges, particularly under Stalin, were driven by a desire to consolidate power and enforce ideological conformity. While there were legitimate threats to the regime during the Civil War, the later purges were often based on manufactured threats, paranoia, and a desire to eliminate any potential challenge to Stalin's authority. Thus, while some purges may have been a response to real threats, the true driving force behind the widespread terror was a quest for absolute control and suppression of any dissent.
Extracts from Mark Schemes
Arguments Supporting the View that Purges and Terror Were a Response to Real Threats
Arguments supporting the view that purges and terror, in the years 1918 to 1941, were a response to real threats to the Leninist and Stalinist regimes might include:
⭐There were real threats to the Leninist regime from a variety of political outlooks. These ranged from ex-Tsarists and the right-wing, to moderates and radicals in the SRs and Mensheviks. They were thus removed in the "Red Terror" which accompanied the Civil War (1918–21).
⭐Stalin faced some real threats in 1932. These came from both "old Bolsheviks" (ideological opposition) and the "Ryutin platform" which disapproved of Stalin's leadership. The general Party purge of 1933–1935 was carried out in response to such political challenges.
⭐Although it is unclear as to whether Kirov was a "real threat" or not, it is likely Stalin perceived him as such and had him removed. His death also provided an excuse for further purges of those whose political/economic views were seen as a danger to Stalinist policies, e.g. Zinoviev and Kamenev (1936) and Bukharin (1938) (it is also possible there was a genuine Trotsky/Zinoviev alliance to oust Stalin at this time).
⭐The Yezhovschina removed political dissidents including old Bolsheviks and culminated in the assassination of the genuine political rival, Trotsky, in Mexico in 1940. It was undertaken to remove factionalsits/potential plotters and safeguard Stalin's authority.
Arguments Challenging the View that Purges and Terror Were a Response to Real Threats
Arguments challenging the view that purges and terror, in the years 1918 to 1941, were a response to real threats to the Leninist and Stalinist regimes might include:
⭐The "Red Terror" which accompanied the Civil War (1918–21) brought attacks on ordinary individuals, deemed "class" enemies, e.g. the burzhui (bourgeois), kulaks and religious figures. These might be categorised as victims of the regime's ideology rather than real threats.
⭐Under Stalin, attacks on industrial managers (as in the Shakhty Trial) and kulaks (during collectivisation campaigns) were similarly directed against those who did not fit the regime's ideological structure - not because of any direct political opposition.
⭐The Great Purges embraced party workers, military commanders (1937) and intelligence officers. It is unlikely that many of these were genuine opponents of the regime. There is limited evidence that even the major political figures, such as Bukharin, were actively opposing the regime. Yezhov's own demise (1938) was through "excessive zeal", not opposition to Stalin.
⭐The Yezhovschina brought the "Great Terror" to ordinary citizens. Under the quota system, many were persecuted for no real reason - some merely reported by vindictive neighbours.