The USSR and Major European Powers in the 1920s

Following the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent Russian Civil War, the newly formed Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) found itself largely isolated on the world stage. The 1920s presented a period of complex and often strained relations between the USSR and other major European powers. While the Soviet government achieved some notable successes in establishing links, particularly with Germany, deep-seated mistrust and ideological differences ultimately hampered broader diplomatic breakthroughs.

Failures in Building Trust and Overcoming Suspicion

The legacy of the Bolshevik Revolution, particularly the withdrawal of Russia from World War I through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, cast a long shadow over the USSR's early foreign relations. The treaty, perceived by the Allied powers as a betrayal, contributed to their decision to exclude Soviet Russia from the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. This exclusion from the crucial negotiations at Versailles fueled Soviet resentment and hindered their integration into the post-war international order.

Economic issues also served as a major stumbling block. The USSR's refusal to honor debts incurred by the Tsarist government, a key point of contention at the Genoa Conference of 1922, further alienated potential European partners, particularly France. The Bolshevik government's nationalization of foreign-owned industries within Russia added to the economic tensions.

The specter of communist expansionism loomed large in the minds of many European leaders. The Spartacist uprising in Germany in 1919, though ultimately unsuccessful, stoked fears of similar communist revolutions across the continent. This underlying suspicion made Western powers hesitant to embrace the USSR. The publication of the forged "Zinoviev Letter" in 1924, which purported to reveal a Soviet plot to incite revolution in Britain, further damaged relations. While its authenticity was quickly debunked, the incident contributed to the Conservative victory in the 1924 election and a subsequent cooling of Anglo-Soviet relations.

Furthermore, the Comintern (Communist International), established in 1919 with the goal of spreading global communist revolution, actively fueled anxieties about Soviet intentions. The Comintern's support for revolutionary movements abroad, though often exaggerated in the West, solidified the perception of the USSR as a threat to the existing world order.

Pragmatic Partnerships and Limited Successes

Despite these setbacks, the USSR did achieve some notable successes in establishing links with other European powers during the 1920s. The most significant of these was the signing of the Treaty of Rapallo with Germany in 1922. Both nations, isolated from the international community – Germany due to its defeat in World War I – found common ground in their shared grievances against the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty provided for the normalization of relations and secret military cooperation. The subsequent Treaty of Berlin in 1926 further strengthened this partnership.

The USSR also made some headway in relations with Great Britain. The Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement of 1921, while primarily focused on economic ties, marked an important step towards normalized relations. The first Labour government, elected in 1924, extended formal diplomatic recognition to the USSR. This recognition, however, was short-lived due to the aforementioned Zinoviev Letter controversy.

Conclusion: A Mixed Record of Success

The USSR's efforts to establish links with other major European powers in the 1920s produced a mixed record of success. While the Soviet government managed to secure a crucial partnership with Germany and achieve temporary recognition from Great Britain, deep-seated ideological differences, political mistrust, and the perceived threat of communist expansionism presented formidable obstacles to broader diplomatic breakthroughs. The legacies of these tensions would continue to shape European international relations in the decades that followed.

Sources:

⭐ Lynch, Michael. The Soviet Union. Hodder Education, 2014.
⭐ Service, Robert. A History of Twentieth-Century Russia. Penguin Books, 2004.