Evaluate the extent to which the Berlin Crisis of 1958–61 led to increased tension between the United States and Soviet Union.
Level
A Level
Year Examined
2022
Topic
International history, 1945–92
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Evaluate the extent to which the Berlin Crisis of 1958–61 led to increased tension between the United States and Soviet Union.
To what extent did the Berlin Crisis of 1958–61 lead to increased tension between the United States and Soviet Union?
The Berlin Crisis of 1958-61, a period marked by ultimatums, standoffs, and the dramatic construction of the Berlin Wall, significantly escalated tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. While underlying suspicion and ideological conflict already characterized their relationship, the crisis brought them perilously close to war and solidified Berlin as a focal point of Cold War friction.
It is crucial to acknowledge that tensions existed long before the Berlin Crisis. Eisenhower's "New Look" foreign policy, with its emphasis on nuclear deterrence and brinkmanship, heightened Soviet anxieties. The creation of the Warsaw Pact in 1955, a direct response to NATO, further solidified the military and ideological divisions in Europe. Khrushchev, while advocating for "peaceful coexistence," never intended to abandon the competition between the superpowers. As he saw it, this rivalry would continue, but without resorting to direct military conflict.
However, the Berlin Crisis amplified these existing tensions. Khrushchev's November 1958 ultimatum, demanding the West's withdrawal from Berlin within six months, sent shockwaves through Europe and the United States. This aggressive move, motivated by the hemorrhaging of East German citizens through Berlin, put the onus on the West to either acquiesce or risk confrontation. The downing of a U-2 spy plane in 1960 and Eisenhower's subsequent attempts to conceal it further poisoned the atmosphere of distrust. This incident, occurring just before a planned summit, undermined diplomatic efforts and reinforced Soviet suspicions of American duplicity.
While the crisis brought the superpowers close to the brink, it can also be argued that Khrushchev, aware of the Soviet Union's relative weakness in nuclear arms, was engaged in a high-stakes bluff. His willingness to engage in talks, exemplified by the 1959 Camp David summit with Eisenhower, suggests an interest in finding a negotiated solution. Furthermore, Khrushchev's 1960 proposal for disarmament, including a unilateral reduction of Soviet troops in Eastern Europe, hinted at a desire to reduce tensions.
However, the failure to reach a resolution in Vienna between Khrushchev and Kennedy in 1961, coupled with the ongoing exodus from East Germany, culminated in the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961. This act, while preventing further emigration, solidified the division of Berlin and became a potent symbol of Cold War division. The subsequent standoff between US and Soviet tanks at Checkpoint Charlie in October 1961 epitomized the precariousness of the situation, with even the slightest miscalculation potentially leading to disaster.
In conclusion, while Cold War tensions predated the Berlin Crisis, the events of 1958-61 significantly escalated the confrontation between the superpowers. Khrushchev's ultimatums, the U-2 incident, and the construction of the Berlin Wall heightened mistrust, solidified divisions, and brought the world closer to the precipice of war. Although Khrushchev may not have explicitly sought conflict, his actions, perceived as aggressive by the West, had a profound impact on the trajectory of the Cold War, leaving a legacy of suspicion and tension that resonated for decades to come.
Bibliography
• Gaddis, John Lewis. *The Cold War: A New History*. Penguin Books, 2006.
• Kennedy, Robert F. *Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis*. W. W. Norton & Company, 2001.
• Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. *A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House*. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2002.
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Outline
This essay will examine the extent to which the Berlin Crisis of 1958-61 led to increased tension between the United States and the Soviet Union. It will explore the events of the crisis and their impact on the relationship between the two superpowers, considering both the escalation of tensions and the potential for diplomacy.
I. Background Tension
This section will introduce the existing tensions between the US and USSR prior to the Berlin Crisis.
⭐Peaceful Coexistence but Underlying Competition: Khrushchev's policy of peaceful coexistence did not eliminate competition, only shifted it to a more peaceful arena.
⭐Eisenhower's 'New Course': Eisenhower's foreign policy involved the use of nuclear weapons, massive retaliation, and brinkmanship, heightening Cold War tensions.
⭐Warsaw Pact Formation: In response to NATO, Khrushchev established the Warsaw Pact in 1955, outlining plans for potential nuclear warfare against the West.
II. Exacerbating Tensions
This section will focus on how the specific events of the Berlin Crisis intensified tensions.
⭐Khrushchev's Ultimatum: In 1958, Khrushchev threatened to declare the agreement on Berlin null and void, placing the city under Soviet control, and threatening war if the West resisted.
⭐East German Exodus: The loss of 2 million East Germans through East Berlin fueled Khrushchev's determination to close the escape route.
⭐U-2 Incident: The downing of a U-2 spy plane in 1960 heightened distrust and suspicion between the superpowers.
⭐Khrushchev's Stalemate: Khrushchev's decision to cut off talks with Eisenhower and his ultimatum to the Kennedy administration in Vienna further escalated tensions.
⭐Construction of the Berlin Wall: The division of Berlin with the construction of the wall in 1961 marked a tangible symbol of the Cold War and further polarized the relationship between the US and USSR.
III. Potential for Reconciliation
This section will analyze the possibility of de-escalation and diplomacy amidst the Berlin Crisis.
⭐Camp David Talks: Khrushchev's agreement to talks with Eisenhower at Camp David suggests a desire to avert war and find a peaceful resolution.
⭐Khrushchev's Disarmament Plan: In 1960, Khrushchev proposed a unilateral disarmament plan, withdrawing troops and missiles, hinting at a potential path toward détente.
⭐The Checkpoint Charlie Standoff: The standoff between US and Soviet troops at Checkpoint Charlie highlights the potential for escalation but also for peaceful resolution through negotiation.
IV. Conclusion
This section will evaluate the overall impact of the Berlin Crisis on US-Soviet relations and provide a clear answer to the essay question. It will consider both the intensified tensions and the possibility of diplomacy to offer a balanced conclusion.
⭐Weighing the Evidence: Assess the evidence presented throughout the essay, arguing to what extent the Berlin Crisis increased tension.
⭐Long-Term Impact: Discuss the lasting consequences of the Berlin Crisis on the Cold War, including the legacy of suspicion and mistrust.
⭐Final Judgment: State whether the Berlin Crisis primarily led to increased tension or if there was also an element of diplomacy and the potential for de-escalation.
Extracts from Mark Schemes
Evaluate the extent to which the Berlin Crisis of 1958–61 led to increased tension between the United States and Soviet Union.
It seemed that Khrushchev never intended peaceful coexistence to end competition between the two superpowers, merely that it would be peaceful competition. Suspicion existed between both sides even before the Berlin crisis. Eisenhower’s ‘New Course’ foreign policy included the use of greater nuclear weapons, a policy of massive retaliation and brinkmanship. In 1955 Khrushchev set up the Warsaw Pact with plans of how to wage nuclear war against NATO. However, the Berlin crises exacerbated the tension as both sides came close to war.
Just ten years after the agreement on the ending of the Berlin Blockade, on 10 November 1958, Khrushchev announced that within six months he would declare this agreement ‘null and void’ and place all of Berlin under Soviet control. He maintained that there would be war if the West resisted.
By the autumn of 1958 East Germany had lost 2 million people who were using East Berlin as an escape route and Khrushchev was determined to stop this. Hopes of an agreement between the United States and Soviet Union were soon dashed when the Soviets shot down a U-2 spy plane capturing the pilot, Gary Powers. Democrats in the United States spread reports that the Soviets were ahead of the United States in ICBMs. Eisenhower believed this to be false based on the evidence produced by U-2 spy planes but he ordered one more flight to take place in May 1960. The plane was shot down by the Soviets and Eisenhower, assuming that Powers was dead, lied and said that the plane must have veered off course but the Soviets learnt the truth from Powers. Thus, suspicion and distrust were exacerbated by Eisenhower’s actions.
Khrushchev cut off talks with Eisenhower hoping that the new administration in the United States might achieve a resolution. In the summer of 1961, he met Kennedy in Vienna but no solution was found to the Berlin problem and Khrushchev again gave the United States 6 months to withdraw from Berlin. Kennedy responded by preparing for a potential conflict. Khrushchev’s own response was seen on 13 August 1961 when a barbed wire fence was erected on the order of Walter Ulbricht separating East and West Berlin making the city the heart of the Cold War.
It can be argued that Khrushchev was only bluffing in 1958 and that he was in no position to alienate the United States. The fact that the two sides agreed to talks suggests they wanted to avert war. Khrushchev returned from his talks at Camp David with an agreement from Eisenhower to a summit in Paris the following year. Berlin and disarmament would be discussed. In January 1960, he gave a public speech to the Supreme Soviet, laying out a disarmament plan in which the Soviets would unilaterally withdraw 1 million troops from Eastern Europe and invite NATO to respond in kind. He would also destroy all Soviet missiles and discuss on-site inspection to verify that the United States did the same. Kennedy did not agree to a resolution as he was prepared to defend the interests of capitalism.
A standoff between US and Soviet troops on either side of the diplomatic checkpoint led to one of the tensest moments of the Cold War in Europe. The United States stationed tanks on its side of the checkpoint, pointing towards the East German troops just beyond the wall. Concerns that US forces would either attempt to take down the wall or force their way through the checkpoint led the Soviet Union to station its own tanks on the East German side. However, Kennedy suggested that Khrushchev remove his tanks and the US Army would reciprocate. The standoff ended peacefully but the Cuban Crisis of 1962 saw the two sides on the brink of nuclear war.