Explain why US foreign policy changed during the presidency of McKinley.
Level
AS LEVEL
Year Examined
2021
Topic
Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919
👑Complete Model Essay
Explain why US foreign policy changed during the presidency of McKinley.
The Rise of American Imperialism in the Late 19th Century
The late nineteenth century witnessed a significant shift in American foreign policy, marked by a growing embrace of imperialism. This departure from traditional isolationism was driven by a confluence of factors, including economic anxieties, religious fervor, and a sense of national exceptionalism. This essay will explore the key reasons behind the burgeoning belief in American imperial destiny and its consequences, ultimately culminating in the Spanish-American War of 1898.
The "White Man's Burden" and Divine Mission
A potent ideological force behind American imperialism was the widespread belief in Anglo-Saxon superiority and its perceived duty to "civilize" supposedly "inferior" races. This sentiment was explicitly articulated in Rudyard Kipling's poem, "The White Man's Burden" (1899), which urged America to take up the mantle of colonialism, particularly in the Philippines. This notion resonated with the prevailing Protestant evangelicalism of the time, which saw America as a chosen nation destined to spread Christianity and its values across the globe. This religious dimension to expansionism provided a powerful moral justification for imperial ambitions.
Economic Distress and the Search for Markets
The severe economic depression of 1893 further fueled the desire for overseas expansion. The crisis exposed the vulnerabilities of the American economy, leading many, particularly industrialists and politicians, to believe that acquiring foreign markets was crucial for national prosperity. Overseas territories were seen as outlets for surplus production, sources of raw materials, and potentially lucrative investment opportunities. This economic rationale for imperialism resonated with the American public, eager for a return to prosperity and stability.
The Cuban Crisis and the Spanish-American War
The Cuban struggle for independence from Spain provided a catalyst for American intervention. The Cuban rebellion, which began in 1895, was met with brutal repression by the Spanish authorities, drawing significant sympathy from the American public. The situation escalated with the mysterious explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor in 1898. While the exact cause of the explosion remains disputed, the event inflamed American public opinion, fueled by sensationalist journalism that blamed Spain. The rallying cry, "Remember the Maine, to hell with Spain," captured the jingoistic fervor that swept the nation, ultimately pushing the United States into war with Spain.
The Aftermath: A New Era of American Imperialism
The Spanish-American War marked a turning point in American history, signaling the country's emergence as a global power with imperial ambitions. The decisive American victory led to the acquisition of former Spanish colonies, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. These acquisitions, however, stood in stark contrast to the traditional American anti-imperialist rhetoric, which had characterized its foreign policy since its founding.
The assassination of President William McKinley in 1901 further solidified this imperial trajectory. His successor, Theodore Roosevelt, was a staunch advocate for American power and expansionism. Under his leadership, the United States continued to assert its dominance in the Caribbean and the Pacific, exemplifying the enduring legacy of the late nineteenth-century shift towards an imperial foreign policy. This marked a departure from the nation's founding principles and set the stage for America's increasingly interventionist role in global affairs in the twentieth century.
Bibliography
⭐Beisner, Robert L. “The American War with Spain, 1898.” The American Historical Review 93, no. 4 (1988): 1202–25.
⭐Hoganson, Kristin L. Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.
⭐Kipling, Rudyard. “The White Man’s Burden: The United States & the Philippine Islands.” McClure’s Magazine 12, no. 2 (1899): 290–91
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The Rise of American Imperialism: A Divine Mandate?
This essay will explore the growing popularity of the belief among militant Protestants that God had favored the USA to 'civilize' the peoples of the Caribbean, Central America, and Asia, culminating in the Spanish-American War of 1898. It will argue that this belief, fueled by economic anxieties and the perceived opportunity presented by the Cuban rebellion, was a key driver of American imperialism.
The "White Man's Burden" and the Divine Mandate
The belief in a divine mission to "civilize" other nations found expression in the writings of Rudyard Kipling, whose poem "The White Man's Burden" (1899) directly addressed the United States, urging it to take on the responsibility of colonizing the Philippines. This poem reflected the popular sentiment that the US had a God-given duty to spread its civilization and values to other parts of the world, justifying imperial expansion as a benevolent act of progress.
Economic Depression and the Need for Expansion
The economic depression of 1893 contributed to the growing popularity of imperialism. The belief emerged that the economic dislocation and social unrest of the time could only be alleviated by acquiring new markets and resources. Imperialism promised a solution to domestic economic problems, offering access to raw materials and new markets for American goods.
The Cuban Rebellion and the Opportunity for Expansion
The outbreak of rebellion in Cuba against Spanish control in 1896 provided a seemingly perfect opportunity to enact this divine plan of expansion. The rebellion, seen as a struggle for freedom and democracy, resonated with American ideals. It became a catalyst, prompting a growing desire among American citizens to intervene and secure Cuban independence, which in turn would give the US control of the island and its strategic value.
The USS Maine and the Path to War
The explosion of the USS Maine in Havana harbor in 1898, although its cause remains disputed, ignited public outrage and cemented the belief that Spain was responsible. The cry of "Remember the Maine, to hell with Spain" encapsulated the popular sentiment. This event fueled the fire of American nationalism and war fever, ultimately pushing the US into war with Spain, paving the way for imperial expansion.
Anti-Imperialist Rhetoric and the Acquisition of New Territories
The acquisition of former Spanish colonies, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, marked a significant departure from the traditional anti-imperialist rhetoric that had defined American foreign policy since the late eighteenth century. It represented a shift towards a more assertive and expansionist foreign policy, driven by economic interests and the belief in the divine mission to spread American civilization.
Theodore Roosevelt and the Continuation of Imperialism
Theodore Roosevelt, who succeeded William McKinley as president after his assassination, was an ardent proponent of imperialism. He continued the expansionist policies of his predecessor, further solidifying America's role as a global power. Under Roosevelt, the US actively sought to exert its influence in Latin America and the Pacific, solidifying its position as a leading imperial force.
Conclusion
The growing popularity of the belief that the USA had a divinely ordained purpose to "civilize" other nations combined with the economic pressures of the 1890s, and the opportunity presented by the Cuban rebellion, led to the US's embrace of imperialism. This ultimately resulted in the Spanish-American War and the acquisition of new territories, marking a significant shift in US foreign policy. While the "White Man's Burden" rhetoric and the idea of a divine mission to spread American civilization were influential factors, the economic and political realities of the time also played a key role in driving the rise of American imperialism.
Extracts from Mark Schemes
The Rise of American Imperialism
The growing popularity of the belief amongst militant Protestants that God had favoured the USA in order to serve the divinely ordained purpose of ‘civilising’ the peoples of the Caribbean, Central America and Asia. Kipling’s the ‘White Man’s Burden’ (1899) was addressed directly to America to undertake the colonisation and annexation of the Philippines.
The economic depression of 1893 fostered the belief that the economic dislocation and social unrest could only be cured by the acquisition of foreign territories.
The outbreak of rebellion (1896) in Cuba against Spanish control seemed to provide an opportunity to enact this divine plan and acquire foreign territories.
The ‘USS Maine’ explosion provided the means whereby public opinion (‘remember the Maine, to hell with Spain’) pushed USA into war with Spain in 1898.
Acquisition of former Spanish colonies Puerto Rico, Guam and Philippines went against the anti-imperialist rhetoric which had been a byword of American foreign policy since the late eighteenth century.
Assassination – succeeded by Theodore Roosevelt who was even more imperialistically minded. This meant the developments seen under McKinley continued.