Evaluate the effectiveness of Affirmative Action policies in the 1980s.
Level
A Level
Year Examined
2021
Topic
The USA, 1944–92
👑Complete Model Essay
Evaluate the effectiveness of Affirmative Action policies in the 1980s.
Evaluating Affirmative Action in the 1980s: Progress and Pushback
Affirmative Action in the 1980s was marked by a duality: significant legal victories and tangible gains for minorities existed alongside mounting political opposition and enduring societal inequalities. While legal changes expanded opportunities, the decade witnessed a growing backlash against the policy, ultimately tempering its overall effectiveness.
Legal Victories and Expanding Opportunities
The 1980s began with promising legal pronouncements for Affirmative Action. The Supreme Court's acceptance of "reasonable quotas" and the reservation of public works contracts for qualified minority contractors signaled a commitment to rectifying historical disadvantages. Connecticut v Teal (1982) further strengthened legal protections by holding employers accountable for discriminatory selection processes, even if unintentional. These decisions, coupled with existing deferral laws, created a legal framework conducive to minority advancement.
This legal progress translated into tangible gains. The percentage of African Americans in white-collar jobs increased notably throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s. For instance, the representation of African Americans among physicians rose from 2.2% to 4.5%. Similarly, the number of African American professors, attorneys, and engineers saw significant increases. These statistics demonstrate the tangible impact of Affirmative Action on employment opportunities for minorities.
Political Pushback and Enduring Inequalities
However, the successes of Affirmative Action were countered by a resurgence of opposition, particularly during the Reagan administration. Reagan's open criticism of quotas and the Justice Department's support for legal challenges against affirmative action policies fostered a climate of resistance. Funding cuts to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission further hampered enforcement efforts. By 1984, the EEOC filed 60% fewer cases than in 1980, highlighting the impact of political opposition.
The legal landscape also shifted unfavorably. The Wygant v Jackson Board of Education (1986) decision, overturning a school board's policy of prioritizing minority teachers in layoffs, signaled a retreat from the principle of affirmative action. This decision, coupled with growing societal anxieties about "reverse discrimination," contributed to a perception that Affirmative Action unfairly disadvantaged white Americans.
While Affirmative Action undoubtedly contributed to increased minority representation in various sectors, the progress remained insufficient to bridge the deep-seated inequalities. The underrepresentation of minorities in top positions and professions persisted, demonstrating the limitations of legal changes in addressing systemic biases and societal prejudices.
Conclusion
Affirmative Action in the 1980s presents a complex picture. While legal advancements and demonstrable gains for minorities signified progress, the simultaneous rise of political opposition and the persistence of societal inequalities underscore the limitations of the policy. The 1980s, therefore, stand as a decade of both progress and pushback, where the effectiveness of Affirmative Action remained a point of contention and its future uncertain.
Source:
Henry, A. (2012). <i>The USA, 1944–92</i>. (No further publication information provided to avoid creating a link)
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Introduction
Briefly introduce Affirmative Action and its goals. State your argument - was it effective in the 1980s? Acknowledge that there were both successes and limitations.
Arguments for the Effectiveness of Affirmative Action in the 1980s
Legal Victories:
⭐Supreme Court rulings supporting quotas and minority contractor reservations.
⭐Connecticut v Teal (1982) holding employers accountable for discriminatory selection processes.
Socioeconomic Progress:
⭐Increased representation of African Americans in white-collar jobs.
⭐Significant growth in African American professionals (physicians, professors, attorneys, engineers).
Arguments Against the Effectiveness of Affirmative Action in the 1980s
Political and Social Backlash:
⭐Reagan administration's opposition to quotas.
⭐Justice Department challenges to affirmative action policies.
⭐Reduced enforcement by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
Legal Setbacks:
⭐Wygant v Jackson Board of Education (1986) limiting affirmative action in layoffs.
Continuing Inequality:
⭐Persistence of underrepresentation in top positions despite some progress.
Conclusion
Summarize the successes and limitations of Affirmative Action in the 1980s. Offer a balanced judgment on its effectiveness, acknowledging the complexity of the issue. Consider the long-term implications of 1980s policies.
Extracts from Mark Schemes
Evaluate the effectiveness of Affirmative Action policies in the 1980s.
Affirmative action produced some key legal changes that offered greater opportunity for minorities and seemed to go some way to meeting criticisms that civil rights progress had been limited to political change and had done little to meet economic and social inequality. In 1980, the Supreme Court accepted that reasonable quotas were legal and that a federal law reserving 15% of public works to be reserved for qualified minority contractors. The opportunities for minorities were helped by Connecticut v Teal (1982), a Supreme Court decision making employers liable for race discrimination if selection procedures affected the opportunities of minorities disproportionately. Additionally, with deferral laws and the backing of the Supreme Court, it could be argued that there was progress. There was an increase in the percentage of white-collar jobs held by African American men and women by the 1990s, and a rise in physicians from 2.2% to 4.5%. African American higher education professors doubled in the 1990s, attorneys rose 6 times, and engineers 4 times. Therefore, Affirmative Action seemed to have had an effect on employment opportunities and its legality had been established.
However, though there had been increases, the considerable inequality of representation of minorities in top positions and the professions remained.
However, its success in being generally politically and socially accepted was less marked as Reagan actively opposed quotas and the Justice Department backed legal cases which challenged the principle of positive discrimination. By 1984, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was filing 60% fewer cases than it had in 1980 because of cuts in funding and political opposition. There was also a turn in the legal tide with the Wygant v Jackson Board of Education 1986 overturning the legality of a policy of a school board in laying off white teachers before non-white teachers to defend the employment of minorities.