To what extent was Johnson to blame for the disagreements with Congress over Reconstruction?
Level
AS LEVEL
Year Examined
2021
Topic
Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–77
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To what extent was Johnson to blame for the disagreements with Congress over Reconstruction?
To what extent was Johnson to blame for the disagreements with Congress over Reconstruction?
The period following the American Civil War saw a nation grappling with the monumental task of Reconstruction. Central to this process were deep-seated disagreements between President Andrew Johnson and the Republican-dominated Congress regarding the treatment of the defeated Confederacy and the implementation of policies for the former Confederate states' readmission to the Union. While both sides held responsibility for the friction, the extent to which Johnson should shoulder the blame requires careful examination.
Johnson's Actions and Their Impact
Andrew Johnson, a Southern Democrat who ascended to the presidency upon Lincoln's assassination in 1865, adopted a lenient approach towards former Confederate leaders that immediately put him at odds with the more radical Republicans in Congress. His decision to grant pardons to numerous Confederate officials, including Jefferson Davis, who was imprisoned for two years, was perceived by many Northerners as an insult to the sacrifices made during the war. This leniency was seen as a betrayal of the Union's victory and fueled suspicions among Republicans about Johnson's commitment to racial equality and true national reconciliation.
Furthermore, Johnson's belief that the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, effectively concluded the process of Reconstruction demonstrated a fundamental misunderstanding of the multifaceted challenges facing the nation. He failed to grasp the need for comprehensive legislation to protect the civil rights of freedmen and to address the entrenched racial prejudice within Southern society. This lack of foresight further exacerbated tensions with Congress.
Congressional Actions and Motivations
The Republican-controlled Congress, emboldened by its overwhelming majority and deeply suspicious of Johnson's conciliatory approach, took decisive steps to assert its authority over the course of Reconstruction. In 1866, Congress passed both the Civil Rights Act, which aimed to protect the fundamental rights of African Americans, and the Reconstruction Acts, which divided the South into military districts and imposed strict conditions for readmission to the Union. Johnson's veto of both acts, only to be overridden by Congress, revealed the depth of the chasm between the executive and legislative branches.
Congress further sought to solidify its vision for Reconstruction by passing the Fourteenth Amendment, guaranteeing equal protection under the law for all citizens. Johnson's active encouragement of Southern states to reject the amendment further inflamed tensions and solidified his image among Republicans as an obstacle to progress. The subsequent passage of the Tenure of Office Act, which Johnson blatantly defied by dismissing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, served as the final catalyst for his impeachment by the House of Representatives in 1868.
Assessing Blame and Considering Context
Attributing blame solely to Johnson for the tumultuous relationship between the presidency and Congress during Reconstruction would be an oversimplification. While his lenient approach towards former Confederates, his limited understanding of the complexities of racial equality, and his persistent defiance of Congressional authority undoubtedly contributed to the discord, it is crucial to recognize the broader political context.
The Republican Party emerged from the Civil War deeply committed to ensuring the rights of African Americans and wary of Southern intentions. Johnson’s actions, perceived as overly sympathetic to the former Confederacy, fueled these suspicions. The Republican supermajorities in both houses of Congress possessed the power and the will to pursue their vision for Reconstruction, even in the face of presidential opposition.
Furthermore, Johnson's own background as a Southern Democrat who had never fully embraced the Republican Party made him an outsider in his own administration. This lack of political capital further limited his ability to build bridges and find common ground with the opposition.
Conclusion
In conclusion, while Johnson's actions, influenced by his personal background and political beliefs, undoubtedly contributed to the disagreements with Congress over Reconstruction, attributing sole blame to him would be an incomplete analysis. The political realities of the time, marked by Republican dominance and a deep-seated commitment to securing the rights of African Americans, created a challenging environment for any president, let alone one who seemed sympathetic to the former Confederacy. Ultimately, the responsibility for the friction rests on both Johnson's shoulders and those of the Republican Congress, each driven by their own convictions and interpretations of how best to heal a nation fractured by war.
Bibliography
⭐Foner, Eric. <i>Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877</i>. HarperCollins, 2014.
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Introduction
Briefly introduce the complex relationship between President Johnson and Congress during Reconstruction. Highlight the differing viewpoints on handling the defeated Confederacy and leading Reconstruction efforts.
Johnson's Actions and Responsibility
Discuss Johnson's background and political leanings:
⭐Southern Democrat, chosen as VP to appease Democrats.
⭐This background influenced his approach to Reconstruction.
Analyze Johnson's lenient stance towards the Confederacy:
⭐Lenient treatment of Confederate leaders (e.g., Jefferson Davis).
⭐Contrasted with the desire for accountability from Congress and the public.
Examine Johnson's premature declaration of Reconstruction's end:
⭐Believed the Thirteenth Amendment marked the completion of Reconstruction.
⭐Failed to address the need for further measures to protect freedmen and integrate the South.
Congressional Actions and Responsibility
Highlight Congress's active role in Reconstruction:
⭐Passage of Civil Rights Act (1866), Reconstruction Acts, and Fourteenth Amendment.
⭐Overrode Johnson's vetoes, demonstrating determination to implement their vision.
Examine Congress's opposition to Johnson's actions:
⭐Condemnation of Johnson's encouragement of states to reject the Fourteenth Amendment.
⭐Passage of the Tenure of Office Act to limit Johnson's power.
Discuss the impeachment of President Johnson:
⭐Highlight the severity of disagreements, leading to Johnson's impeachment.
⭐Emphasize the significant political clash between the executive and legislative branches.
Evaluation of Blame and Contributing Factors
Analyze Johnson's political miscalculations:
⭐Failed to recognize or adapt to the Republican supermajority in Congress.
⭐Contributed to the impasse by not acknowledging the political realities.
Acknowledge the role of Congress in the disagreements:
⭐Congress was resolute in its vision for Reconstruction and unwilling to compromise.
⭐Their unyielding stance also played a part in the conflicts.
Conclusion
Summarize the shared responsibility for the disagreements between Johnson and Congress. Emphasize that while Johnson's actions were a significant factor, the unyielding stance of Congress and the complex political atmosphere of the era also played crucial roles.
Extracts from Mark Schemes
To what extent was Johnson to blame for the disagreements with Congress over Reconstruction?
The Congress elected in 1864 was solidly Republican and the 1866 Congress was even more so. There was a great deal of difference between President and Congress, Democrat and Republican, both in how best to treat the defeated Confederacy as well as which of the two should lead Reconstruction policies.
Actions of Johnson:
- Andrew Johnson, who became President on the death of Lincoln in 1865, was a Tennessee Democrat, a Southerner chosen as Vice President to attract Democratic voters.
- In 1865, Johnson took a softer line towards Southern war leaders than Congress wanted: only one was executed and Jefferson Davis was imprisoned for two years. This went against views of Congress and many in the country who felt that the suffering endured in the war needed to be acknowledged through a firmer line against CSA leaders.
- Johnson assumed that with the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment, Reconstruction was over.
Actions of Congress:
- In 1866, Congress passed a Civil Rights Act protecting the rights of freedmen; it passed the Reconstruction Acts which imposed military rule on the South. Johnson vetoed both only for Congress to override his vetoes.
- Congress also passed the Fourteenth Amendment giving equal rights to all, only to find Johnson encouraging states to refuse to approve it.
- In 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, which stated that the President could not dismiss a federal official until Congress had approved a successor. Johnson still went ahead and dismissed the Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton.
Relations between President and Congress were so bad that, in March 1868, Congress impeached Johnson. He escaped punishment by one vote. Thus, when discussing who was to blame for the disagreements after the Civil War, it is vital to consider the political realities of the period – something which it could be said Johnson failed to do. Republican supermajorities in both houses meant that any policies which did not meet with Congressional approval were going to be difficult to pass. In ignoring this reality, Johnson must take some of the blame, but it is clear that members of Congress were unwilling to compromise as well.