How Firmly did Napoleon Establish his Control over France as First Consul, 1799–1804?

When Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in the Coup of 18 Brumaire (November 1799), France was a nation weary of revolution. The Directory, established in the wake of the Terror, had proven itself ineffectual and corrupt. Napoleon, a popular general with a reputation for decisiveness, offered stability and order. But how firmly did he establish his control during his time as First Consul? This essay will argue that while Napoleon laid the foundations for absolute rule, his control remained incomplete by 1804.

The Establishment of Authority

From the outset, the Constitution of 1799 granted Napoleon significant power. It created a three-man Consulate, but as First Consul, Napoleon’s authority overshadowed his colleagues. They possessed only a ‘voix consultative,’ a right to offer an opinion, while Napoleon’s decisions were final. This consolidated his position and allowed him to shape the government according to his vision. He quickly moved to centralize power, appointing prefects to oversee departments and reforming the legal system with the introduction of the Civil Code. These measures effectively extended his reach into every corner of French life.

Napoleon’s control was further bolstered by his shrewd management of the legislature. While technically representative bodies, both the Tribunate and Legislature were effectively neutered. The Tribunate, tasked with debating legislation, was reduced from 100 to 50 members in 1802 after voicing criticism of the Civil Code. The Legislature, responsible for voting on laws, never rejected a government bill after 1802. Napoleon’s direct involvement in drafting the Civil Code, attending sessions and making his views clear, further illustrates his dominance in the legislative process.

Challenges to Napoleonic Control

Despite these measures, challenges to Napoleon’s authority remained. The attempted assassination of December 1800, where a bomb exploded near his carriage, highlighted the vulnerability of his position and the persistence of opposition. This underlying instability likely contributed to the Senate's decision to offer Napoleon the Consulship for life in 1802, a move suggesting they felt his grip on power needed reinforcement.

Further evidence of incomplete control can be seen in the series of Royalist plots in 1804, most notably the Cadoudal Affair. The alleged involvement of the Duc d’Enghien, a Bourbon prince, demonstrates the continued threat posed by those nostalgic for the monarchy. Napoleon’s response, the abduction and execution of d’Enghien without trial, while decisive, can be interpreted as a sign of insecurity. His invocation of the Corsican vendetta to justify the act suggests an appeal to personal authority rather than the rule of law, potentially undermining his carefully constructed image as the guarantor of stability.

The Role of Censorship

Napoleon’s use of censorship further reveals an attempt to suppress dissent and maintain control. In 1800, the number of political journals in Paris was slashed from 73 to 13, and eventually only nine remained. Editors, forced to rely on government-approved material from “Le Moniteur,” the official journal, had little room for criticism. While Napoleon argued that censorship was necessary to prevent the spread of dangerous ideas and maintain public order, it also stifled political debate and limited the free exchange of information, indicating a fear of dissenting voices.

Conclusion

In conclusion, while Napoleon made significant strides in consolidating his power as First Consul, his control remained incomplete by 1804. The Constitution of 1799, his influence over government bodies, and the introduction of the Civil Code all point towards a firm grip on power. However, assassination attempts, Royalist plots, and the reliance on censorship reveal an underlying insecurity and the persistence of opposition. By 1804, Napoleon had established a strong foundation for authoritarian rule, but it was a foundation built on shaky ground. The fragility of his position would ultimately contribute to his decision to declare himself Emperor in 1804, a move aimed at securing his power and legitimizing his rule.