There was little change to the living and working conditions of urban and rural people in Russia during the period from 1855 to 1964. How far do you agree?

This essay will argue that while there were some notable changes in living conditions in Russia between 1855 and 1964, these were often limited, uneven, and frequently overshadowed by periods of hardship and repression. The fundamental challenges faced by the working population, both in urban and rural areas, remained largely consistent throughout the period, hindering the prospects for significant improvements in living standards.

The Persistence of Hardship:
Throughout the period, Russian workers faced severe limitations on their autonomy and well-being. The emancipation of serfs in 1861 brought a semblance of freedom, but this was often illusory. The newly liberated peasants were burdened with heavy redemption payments, restricting their economic opportunities and keeping them tied to the land. Furthermore, the Tsarist government consistently pursued policies that prioritized industrial development over worker welfare. This led to factory conditions that were notoriously harsh, including long hours, dangerous machinery, and low wages.
The Bolshevik Revolution, while promising a brighter future for the working class, failed to deliver on its promises. The introduction of war communism in 1918 inflicted devastating hardship on the population. The economic disruptions of the First World War, the Civil War, and the famine of 1921-22 compounded the difficulties faced by both urban and rural inhabitants. Although the New Economic Policy (NEP) implemented by Lenin brought some relief in the 1920s, the implementation of collectivization and the first Five-Year Plans under Stalin in the 1930s ushered in a brutal period of forced industrialization. This resulted in the decimation of the peasantry and the deaths of millions through famine and political purges. Even the relative economic liberalization under Khrushchev in the 1950s and 1960s did little to alleviate the fundamental challenges of poverty, limited housing, and a lack of consumer goods that plagued the Soviet Union throughout the period.

The Impact of Repressive Policies:
Throughout the period, the Russian government relied heavily on repressive policies and propaganda to control the population. The Tsarist regime employed a system of political policing, censorship, and strict limitations on public assembly to stifle dissent. While the Bolsheviks initially promised democracy and freedom, they quickly established a totalitarian state, eliminating all opposition and restricting individual liberties. The KGB, the Soviet secret police, became a powerful force, employing surveillance, intimidation, and exile to maintain control and prevent any challenge to the Soviet ideology.
This enforced conformity significantly impacted the lives of both urban and rural Russians, limiting their opportunities for self-expression and hindering any genuine improvement in living conditions. The constant fear of reprisal discouraged public criticism and activism, while the dissemination of propaganda ensured that the government's narrative dominated public discourse. This fostered a climate of suspicion and mistrust, further contributing to the overall sense of despondency.

Limited Improvements:
While it is undeniable that there were some notable changes in living conditions during the period, these were often limited in scope and impact. For example, Stolypin’s agrarian reforms, implemented in the early 20th century, did offer some opportunities for economic advancement for a segment of the rural population. The introduction of tractors and other modern agricultural techniques, coupled with the rise of capitalist farming, led to increased productivity and a rise in living standards for some. However, the benefits of these reforms were unevenly distributed, largely benefiting wealthier peasants known as "Kulaks" at the expense of the majority of rural workers.
Similarly, the economic policies of the Soviet government in the 1930s and 1950s did result in some improvements in urban living standards. The second Five-Year Plan, driven by Stalin's ambition to industrialize the Soviet Union, led to a significant expansion of the urban workforce and the construction of new housing and infrastructure. Under Khrushchev, the focus shifted towards producing consumer goods such as televisions and cars, resulting in a modest rise in living standards for a select portion of the population.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, while there were some periods of limited improvement in living conditions during the period from 1855 to 1964, it is clear that the fundamental challenges faced by both urban and rural Russians remained largely unchanged. The persistence of hardship, the impact of repressive policies, and the uneven distribution of wealth and opportunities paint a picture of a society where significant progress in living standards was consistently hampered. While there were moments of relative prosperity for certain groups, these were often temporary and overshadowed by periods of intense suffering and repression. To argue that there was little change to the living and working conditions of urban and rural people in Russia during this period is therefore not a denial of progress, but rather an acknowledgement of the deeply entrenched nature of the challenges that impeded true improvement.