‘In the years 1890 to 1914, a culture of militarism dominated Germany.’ Assess the validity of this view.
Level
A Level
Year Examined
2022
Topic
GERMANY, 1918–47
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‘In the years 1890 to 1914, a culture of militarism dominated Germany.’ Assess the validity of this view.
Was Imperial Germany Dominated by a Culture of Militarism, 1890-1914?
The period 1890-1914 witnessed a complex interplay of forces within German society. The assertion that a culture of militarism dominated Germany during this time has considerable merit, evidenced by the exaltation of military values, the influence of the military elite, and the widespread public enthusiasm for military expansion. However, focusing solely on militarism risks overlooking the equally significant counter-currents of socialist thought, economic anxieties, and social reform that challenged the dominance of militaristic ideals.
Arguments for the Dominance of Militarism
Advocates for the dominance of militarism point to several factors. Firstly, Kaiser Wilhelm II, a fervent admirer of military tradition and power, played a pivotal role in fostering a militaristic culture. His admiration for military rituals and uniforms, coupled with his aggressive foreign policy aims encapsulated in Weltpolitik, contributed to the perception of Germany as a nation spoiling for war. The Zabern Affair of 1913, where the Kaiser's unwavering support for the army's heavy-handed actions against civilians sparked outrage, underscored the extent to which militaristic values had permeated the highest levels of government.
Furthermore, the German aristocracy, deeply entrenched in the officer corps of the military, used their positions to maintain their social and political clout. Aspiring middle-class families, eager to climb the social ladder, sought commissions for their sons in the military, further solidifying the prestige associated with military service. The popularity of organizations like the Navy League and Army League, which advocated for aggressive naval expansion and a more assertive foreign policy, testified to the widespread public support for militaristic ideals. The sheer size of the German army and navy, coupled with the social esteem accorded to reservists, provided further evidence of militarism's pervasive influence.
Beyond these institutional and social factors, militarism also manifested itself in German culture. Literature, parades commemorating military victories like Sedan Day, and grandiose monuments celebrating German military prowess all contributed to the normalization and glorification of war and military values. The unquestioning deference often shown to military officers in everyday life further exemplifies the extent to which militarism had seeped into the fabric of German society.
Challenges to the Dominance of Militarism
However, to characterize Germany in this period as unilaterally dominated by militarism would be an oversimplification. The Zabern Affair, while illustrating the influence of the military, also revealed its limits. Public outcry and heated debate in the Reichstag demonstrated that automatic deference to the army was not universal.
More importantly, the burgeoning socialist movement presented a significant challenge to the dominance of militarism. The Social Democratic Party (SPD), consistently opposed military spending increases and campaigned for peaceful solutions to international disputes, experienced a surge in popularity, becoming the largest party in the Reichstag by 1912. This electoral success, along with the flourishing of socialist societies and trade unions, underscored the growing appeal of an alternative value system that prioritized social justice, economic equality, and peaceful international relations over military strength.
Furthermore, the government's own policies reflected a need to balance militaristic ambitions with the social and economic needs of its citizens. The social welfare reforms introduced under Caprivi and Posadowsky-Wehner, aimed at improving the living and working conditions of the working class, demonstrated that the government could not afford to ignore the social and economic anxieties of a rapidly industrializing society.
Conclusion
In conclusion, while militarism undoubtedly exerted a powerful influence on German society from 1890 to 1914, it was not an all-encompassing force. The Kaiser's enthusiasm, the prestige of the military elite, and the widespread public support for military expansion all contributed to a culture that often glorified war and military values. However, the growth of the socialist movement, public opposition to incidents like the Zabern Affair, and the government's own social welfare programs highlight the presence of significant counter-currents that challenged the dominance of militarism. The decision to go to war in 1914, while appearing as a victory for militaristic ideology, ultimately resulted in the destruction of the very social and political order it sought to uphold. The tragedy of the First World War serves as a stark reminder of the dangers of unchecked militarism, even in a society where it appears deeply entrenched.
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In the years 1890 to 1914, a culture of militarism dominated Germany. Assess the validity of this view.
This essay will assess the validity of the view that in the years 1890 to 1914, a culture of militarism dominated Germany. It will consider arguments both supporting and challenging this view, before concluding with an overall assessment of the relative influence of militarism within German society during this period.
Arguments Supporting the View
There are a number of arguments that support the view that a culture of militarism dominated Germany in the years 1890 to 1914. These include:
⭐The influence of Kaiser Wilhelm II: The Kaiser was a strong advocate of the military and its traditions. His support for military expansion and his promotion of Weltpolitik helped to elevate the status of the military within German society.
⭐Aristocratic influence: The aristocratic elite maintained their social and political dominance through their control of the officer corps. Ambitious middle-class families sought military careers for their sons, contributing to the perceived prestige of military service.
⭐Support for the military: The popularity of the Navy League and Army League demonstrates widespread support for military expansion. The existence of reserve military forces, which held significant social respect, also points to a strong military ethos.
⭐Military expansion: The significant increase in the size of the German army and navy attests to the growing influence of militarism. Even the SPD, traditionally opposed to militarism, ultimately rallied behind the war effort in 1914.
⭐Cultural influence: Militarism permeated German culture through literature, parades, and monuments. The automatic deference to army officers was a common occurrence.
Arguments Challenging the View
However, there is also evidence to suggest that militarism did not completely dominate German society during this period. These arguments include:
⭐Public reaction to the Zabern Affair: The public outrage generated by the Zabern Affair demonstrates that the culture of militarism had limits, and that public opinion could challenge the army’s authority.
⭐The growth of the SPD: The SPD's increasing size and influence, along with its continued opposition to military expansion, indicates a strong counter-current to militarism within German society.
⭐Socialist and trade union movements: The focus of these groups on improving working-class conditions, rather than military strength, highlights alternative priorities within German society.
⭐Social welfare reforms: The government’s introduction of social welfare reforms aimed at improving the lives of working-class Germans suggests that concerns about social well-being were not entirely eclipsed by militarism.
⭐The impact of industrialization and urbanization: The transformative effects of industrialization and urbanization, with their focus on economic growth and social change, offered a counterpoint to the dominant military culture.
Conclusion
In conclusion, while militarism was a significant influence on German society in the years 1890 to 1914, it was not the sole dominating force. The growth of socialism, social welfare reforms, and the impact of industrialization and urbanization all challenged the dominance of militarism. The Kaiser's pursuit of Weltpolitik and the influence of the aristocracy clearly pushed the country towards military expansion, but this was not a wholly uncontested trend within society. Ultimately, militarism did win out in 1914, leading to a devastating war, but it is important to recognize the complex social and political dynamics at play within Germany during this period.
Extracts from Mark Schemes
Arguments Supporting a Culture of Militarism in Germany (1890-1914)
• Kaiser Wilhelm II's Influence: Kaiser Wilhelm II's well-known admiration for military traditions, rituals, and uniforms significantly elevated their importance in German society. This, combined with the emergence of Weltpolitik as the guiding principle of government policy and the Zabern Affair, demonstrates the pervasive influence of militarism at the highest levels of German government and society.
• Aristocratic Dominance: The aristocratic elite maintained their social and political dominance during this period, partly through their control over the officer corps of the military. Ambitious upper-middle-class families often sought commissions for their sons to enhance their social standing.
• Popularity of Military Organizations: The size and popularity of the Navy League and Army League provide clear evidence of widespread support for the military and an expansionist foreign policy. Additionally, many middle and working-class men were members of the reserve military forces, which garnered significant social respect and status.
• Military Expansion: The significant increase in the size of both the army and navy during this period attests to the widespread support for militarism and its burgeoning influence. Even the Social Democratic Party (SPD) rallied behind the war effort at the outbreak of war in 1914, joining the Burgfriede and voting for war credits.
• Cultural Manifestations: Militarism played a significant role in German culture, evident in literature, parades on Sedan Day, and the new memorial commemorating German states' role in defeating Napoleon. Deference to the authority of army officers was commonplace.
Arguments Challenging a Culture of Militarism in Germany (1890-1914)
• Limits of Militarism: The army's actions in the Zabern Affair and the Kaiser's subsequent support for the military sparked significant outrage in the Reichstag and public opinion. This demonstrates that the culture of militarism and automatic deference to the army had limits.
• Growing Influence of the SPD: The SPD continued to grow significantly in size and influence throughout this period. The party consistently opposed military budget expansions until the outbreak of war. In 1912, the SPD became the largest party in the Reichstag, reflecting substantial support for their opposition to militarism's influence.
• Rise of Socialist Societies and Trade Unions: Alongside the SPD's growth, there was a significant expansion of socialist societies and trade unions. These groups focused on improving working-class living standards, not on Germany's military strength and glory.
• Social Welfare Reforms: Government policy aimed to improve working-class conditions through social welfare reforms, particularly those introduced by Caprivi (1890-94) and Posadowsky-Wehner (1900-06). The Kaiser's desire for Weltpolitik and military expansion had to be balanced with concerns for the living standards of ordinary Germans.
• Influence of Urbanization and Industrialization: It could be argued that the impact of urbanization and industrialization had a more dominant influence on German society during this period. Many benefited from higher real wages, new technologies, and leisure activities. However, others suffered from overcrowded, unsanitary living conditions and low-paid, insecure employment.
Conclusion
While militarism was clearly a significant influence on German society during this period, rooted in Prussian military success and the dominance of the aristocratic elite, society was also undergoing transformations challenging its social and political fabric. The growing influence of socialism played a crucial role in this challenge. Ultimately, the forces of militarism resorted to an expansionist foreign policy, leading to the outbreak of war in 1914. Although militarism appeared to have won in 1914, it ultimately resulted in the destruction of the social and political system the elites had sought to preserve.