top of page

‘There was significant change in the nature of Chinese governments in the years from 1839 to 1989.’ How far do you agree?

Level

A Level

Year Examined

2022

Topic

China and its rulers 1839-1989

👑Complete Model Essay

‘There was significant change in the nature of Chinese governments in the years from 1839 to 1989.’ How far do you agree?

There was significant change in the nature of Chinese governments in the years from 1839 to 1989. How far do you agree?

The period from 1839 to 1989 witnessed a dramatic upheaval in the political landscape of China. From the waning years of the Qing Dynasty, marked by a rigid hereditary monarchy, to the authoritarian rule of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), the nature of Chinese governments underwent a series of profound transformations. While recognizing the significant changes, it is also crucial to acknowledge the continuity that remained evident, particularly in terms of the persistent centralization of power and the limited presence of genuine democratic structures.

Significant Changes in the Nature of Chinese Governments

The most profound transformation came with the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911 and the subsequent establishment of the Republic of China. This marked the end of a millennia-old tradition of dynastic rule and ushered in an era of political instability and fragmentation. The early Republic was characterized by a struggle for power among warlords, who established their own fiefdoms across the country. This period of anarchy was followed by the emergence of the Kuomintang (KMT), led by Sun Yat-sen, and its subsequent rise to power in 1928. The KMT attempted to consolidate national unity and establish a centralized government, but the party was plagued by internal conflicts and faced constant challenges from the growing Communist movement.

The rise of the CCP in the 1920s marked a further significant shift in the nature of Chinese government. The CCP, under the leadership of Mao Zedong, adopted a Marxist-Leninist ideology that emphasized class struggle and egalitarianism. After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the CCP implemented a centrally planned economy and established a single-party state that controlled all aspects of life. The CCP’s commitment to social and economic transformation, evident in its policies such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, contrasted sharply with the Qing Dynasty’s emphasis on preserving the traditional social order.

The Chinese government under Mao Zedong was characterized by its emphasis on social control and the suppression of dissent. The Cultural Revolution, a period of intense societal upheaval and political persecution, exemplifies the CCP’s willingness to use extreme measures to maintain its power. However, under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, who came to power after Mao’s death in 1976, China embarked on a period of economic reform that involved opening up the country to foreign investment and adopting market-oriented policies. While Deng retained the CCP’s monopoly on political power, he acknowledged the need for economic liberalization. After Deng’s death in 1997, China has continued to pursue a combination of political authoritarianism and economic dynamism, representing a further evolution in the nature of its government.

Continuity in the Nature of Chinese Governments

Despite the significant changes that took place in the 20th century, certain continuities in the nature of Chinese government remained. One such continuity is the persistence of a highly centralized system of governance. The Qing Dynasty, while largely decentralized in practice, maintained a strong central authority that exerted control over the provinces. The CCP, under both Mao and Deng, further centralized power in Beijing, establishing a powerful apparatus that controlled the military, the economy, and the media. The lack of genuine democratic structures and the suppression of opposition voices were consistent features of Chinese government throughout this period.

Another continuity was the use of repressive measures by the government to maintain its authority. The Qing Dynasty, while known for its grand cultural achievements, was also notorious for its brutal suppression of rebellions and its use of torture. The KMT, under Chiang Kai-shek, implemented a harsh regime that undermined its legitimacy. The CCP, during the Cultural Revolution, further demonstrated its willingness to employ violence and intimidation to silence dissent. This pattern of repression, while taking different forms under different regimes, has been a recurring theme in Chinese history.

Conclusion

In conclusion, while the nature of Chinese governments underwent significant changes in the years from 1839 to 1989, certain continuities persisted. The transition from hereditary monarchy to a republic, and then to a communist state, represented a major shift in political structures and ideology. However, the centralized nature of governance, the suppression of dissent, and the lack of genuine democratic institutions remained prominent throughout this period. The Chinese government has evolved constantly, adapting to internal and external pressures, yet its core features, including a strong central authority and a penchant for repressive measures, have endured. The question of whether the changes outweigh the continuities is ultimately a matter of interpretation, as both aspects played a crucial role in shaping the modern history of China.

Note: History Study Pack Required

 

Score Big with Perfectly Structured History Essays!

Prepare effortlessly for your A/AS/O-Level exams with our comprehensive...

 

History Study Pack.

1200+ Model Essays: Master your essay writing with expertly crafted answers to past paper questions.

Exam Boards Covered: Tailored materials for AQA, Cambridge, and OCR exams.

🍃 Free Essay Plan

Essay Outline: "There was significant change in the nature of Chinese governments in the years from 1839 to 1989." How far do you agree?

This essay will explore the extent to which there was significant change in the nature of Chinese governments from 1839 to 1989. It will argue that while there were undoubtedly significant changes, particularly in terms of ideology and the degree of centralisation, there were also important continuities in the nature of governance.

Argument 1: Significant Changes

A. The End of the Monarchy and Rise of New Ideologies
The 1911 Revolution marked a fundamental shift, ending the centuries-old Qing Dynasty and ushering in the Republic of China. This was accompanied by the emergence of new ideologies such as Sun Yat-sen's Three People's Principles, which challenged the traditional Confucian system and advocated for nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood. The rise of the Communist Party in the 1920s further introduced Marxist-Leninist thought, advocating for class struggle and the eventual establishment of a socialist state.

B. Centralisation of Power
The Qing Dynasty, despite its vast size, relied heavily on provincial governors and warlords who enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy. The CCP, however, established a highly centralised system with a strong party-state apparatus and a clear hierarchy of power. This shift from a more fragmented system to a highly centralised one was a significant change.

C. Complete Destruction of the Old Ruling Class
The Communist victory in 1949 marked the end of the old ruling class, with the GMD retreating to Taiwan. The CCP completely dismantled the existing structures of power and established a new political order based on its own ideology and principles. This complete break with the past represented a profound change in the nature of governance.

D. Differences in Aims and Approaches
The aims of governments during this period varied considerably. While the Qing dynasty primarily sought to preserve its power and maintain social order, the CCP aimed to achieve equality, social justice, and establish a socialist society. Similarly, the early GMD under Sun Yat-sen aimed for revolutionary change, while later under Jiang Jieshi adopted a more conservative approach. These differences in aims and approaches also indicate significant changes in the nature of governance.

E. Development of a Command Economy
The Qing dynasty, despite its attempts to regulate trade and enforce mercantilist policies, did not engage in comprehensive economic planning. However, both the GMD and the CCP later adopted a “command economy” model, with the state playing a dominant role in directing economic development. This shift towards state-controlled economic planning marks another significant change in the nature of government.


Argument 2: Continuities in Governance

A. Persistent Repression
While the specific forms of repression may have varied, all governments in this period, from the Qing to the CCP, utilized repressive measures against the populace. The Qing dynasty faced numerous rebellions and employed brutal tactics to suppress them. Similarly, the GMD under Jiang Jieshi and the CCP under Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping all engaged in political suppression and human rights violations. This continuity in the use of repressive policies suggests that the basic nature of governance remained largely unchanged.

B. Centralisation of Power in Beijing
Despite the rise of warlords and regional autonomy during periods of instability, power ultimately remained concentrated in Beijing. The Qing dynasty, the GMD, and the CCP all sought to maintain their control over the entire country, even if their methods varied. The consistent dominance of a central government in Beijing highlights a key continuity in the nature of Chinese governance.

C. Failure to Establish Constitutional Democracy
Despite the rhetoric of democracy espoused by figures like Sun Yat-sen or the CCP in its early years, attempts to establish a stable constitutional democracy in China ultimately failed. The 1911 Revolution failed to establish a lasting democratic system, and later movements, such as the Tiananmen Square protests, were brutally suppressed. This persistent failure to establish a democratic system underscores a key continuity in the nature of governance, with power remaining concentrated in the hands of the ruling elite.

D. Suppression of Provincial Autonomy
All governments during this period, from the Qing to the CCP, sought to suppress provincial autonomy and assert control over the periphery. The Qing dynasty faced numerous rebellions in the provinces, and the CCP, despite its focus on rural mobilization, eventually tightened its control over Tibet and Xinjiang. This consistent effort to centralise power and limit regional autonomy points to a continuity in the nature of Chinese governance.

E. Importance of the Bureaucracy
The civil service and the bureaucracy played a significant role in all governments during this period. While the Qing dynasty relied heavily on traditional Confucian values and examinations, the GMD and the CCP also established extensive bureaucratic structures to manage the vast country. The continuing importance of the bureaucracy and its role in administering governance points to a key continuity throughout this period.

Conclusion

This essay has argued that there were significant changes in the nature of Chinese governments from 1839 to 1989, particularly in terms of ideology, centralisation of power, and economic policies. However, there were also important continuities in the nature of governance, such as the persistent use of repression, the centralisation of power in Beijing, the failure to establish a stable democracy, and the continuing importance of the bureaucracy. Ultimately, the nature of Chinese governance during this period was characterized by both significant change and enduring continuities.

This essay outline provides a framework for a comprehensive A-Level essay on this topic. It is important to note that this is just a starting point, and specific evidence and analysis should be drawn from your own research and understanding of the historical context.

Extracts from Mark Schemes

Supporting the Hypothesis
In supporting the hypothesis in the question it might be argued that the change from a centuries-old hereditary monarchy first to an anarchic state of warlords and then to a Communist party dictatorship showed major transformations.
Answers might consider that in Qing and GMD China much power was in the hands of provincial governors or warlords, however the CCP established a very centralised system.
Answers might consider the changes in the nature of government as a result of the 1911 revolution, and Sun’s Three People’s Principles.
Answers might consider 1949 and the complete destruction of the old ruling class.
Answers might consider that the main aims of the governments were very different – for example for the Qing sought the preservation of the ruling class, whereas the Communists sought equality and party rule.
Answers might consider the difference between governments such as those of Mao and the early GMD which sought major change, and those of the Qing, Yuan Shikai and Deng which were more cautious.
Answers might consider how the later Communist and GMD governments attempted to exert political control through a ‘command economy’, while the Qing made little attempt to achieve this.

Challenging the Hypothesis
In challenging the hypothesis in the question, it might be argued that there has never been any true democracy in China, and that every government has adopted repressive measures against the population.
Answers might consider the consistently repressive policies of the Qing, the GMT under Jiang, and the CCP under Mao and Deng, and how this repression in turn caused uprisings.
Answers might consider the centralisation of power in Beijing, and the way that most power remained in the hands of one person, whether Tzu Hsi, Yuan Shikai, Jiang, Mao or Deng.
Answers might consider the failure of all attempts to establish any form of constitutional democracy, for example 1911 or the Tiananmen Square protests.
Answers might consider the consistent determination to crush provincial autonomy, for example the Qing and the Panthay Rebellion, Jiang Jieshi’s Northern Expedition and Mao’s actions in Tibet and Xinjiang.
Answers might consider the continuing importance of the civil service and the bureaucracy throughout the period.

bottom of page