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Analyse the extent to which President Kennedy was responsible for the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

Level

A Level

Year Examined

2023

Topic

International history, 1945–92

👑Complete Model Essay

Analyse the extent to which President Kennedy was responsible for the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

To what extent was President Kennedy responsible for the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962?

The Cuban Missile Crisis, a thirteen-day standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union in 1962, was sparked by the discovery of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba, just 90 miles from US soil. While multiple factors contributed to this perilous confrontation, a balanced analysis suggests that President Kennedy's actions played a significant, though not singular, role in escalating the situation to a potential nuclear precipice.

Kennedy's actions in the years and months leading up to the crisis undoubtedly contributed to Soviet anxieties and fueled their decision to deploy missiles to Cuba. His campaign rhetoric in 1960, which exaggerated the "missile gap" between the US and the USSR, fostered a climate of distrust and heightened Cold War tensions. Furthermore, his authorization of the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, a failed attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro's regime in Cuba, solidified Soviet perceptions of American aggression and strengthened their resolve to protect their communist ally.

The deployment of American Jupiter missiles in Turkey in 1961, a move initiated under the Eisenhower administration but continued by Kennedy, further aggravated the situation. Placing these missiles within striking distance of Soviet territory understandably provoked Moscow, which viewed the move as a direct threat to its security. Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, argued that the deployment of Soviet missiles in Cuba was a justifiable response to American actions in Turkey. While the US argued that placing missiles in Turkey was different from Cuba due to its alliance with Turkey, the parallel was not lost on the Soviets, and this sense of being strategically encircled fueled their decision-making.

Kennedy's handling of the crisis itself, while ultimately successful in averting nuclear war, was not without its share of risky decisions. His initial response, a naval blockade of Cuba, was deemed an act of war by the Soviets and brought the world to the brink of conflict. His insistence on the removal of the Soviet missiles, backed by the threat of military action, could have easily spiraled out of control, particularly given the presence of Soviet troops and the volatile political climate.

However, it is crucial to acknowledge that Khrushchev's miscalculations and motivations also played a substantial role in the crisis. His decision to place nuclear missiles in Cuba, a move that he must have known would provoke a strong American reaction, was a gamble that backfired spectacularly. Khrushchev's desire to bolster his domestic standing, coupled with his underestimation of Kennedy's resolve, ultimately contributed to the crisis. As historian Robert F. Kennedy, the President’s brother wrote, Khrushchev "did not want to back down, to appear weak in the face of American pressure." (Kennedy, 1969). This pressure stemmed from Kennedy's unwavering stance, which, while perilous, ultimately forced Khrushchev's hand.

In conclusion, while President Kennedy's actions, particularly his early decisions to escalate Cold War tensions and his unwavering stance during the crisis, significantly contributed to the onset and escalation of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Khrushchev's miscalculations and motivations played an equally important role. The crisis was ultimately the result of a complex interplay of actions and miscalculations by both superpowers, a dangerous dance on the precipice of nuclear war.

Bibliography

Kennedy, R. F. (1969). Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

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Introduction

Brief overview of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the key arguments regarding Kennedy's role. Thesis statement: While Kennedy's actions during the crisis demonstrated restraint and ultimately avoided nuclear war, his previous foreign policy decisions significantly contributed to the escalation of tensions with the Soviet Union, ultimately making him largely responsible for the crisis.

Kennedy's Actions Leading to the Crisis

Exaggeration of the "Missile Gap": Discuss how Kennedy's campaign rhetoric about a Soviet missile advantage, which was factually inaccurate, created a climate of fear and pressured him to appear strong on communism.

Military Buildup and Jupiter Missiles in Turkey: Analyze the significance of Kennedy's decision to expand US nuclear forces, particularly the deployment of Jupiter missiles in Turkey, which directly threatened the Soviet Union and provided a pretext for Khrushchev's actions.

Kennedy's Handling of the Crisis

Ultimatum and Blockade: Examine Kennedy's decision to impose a naval blockade on Cuba and issue an ultimatum to the Soviet Union. While portrayed as a firm response, argue that these actions escalated the situation and brought the world closer to nuclear war.

Negotiations and Resolution: Analyze the negotiations between Kennedy and Khrushchev, including the secret agreement to remove both Jupiter and Cuban missiles. Discuss Kennedy's motivation for concealing the deal and its implications for understanding his role in the crisis.

Khrushchev's Role and Other Factors

Soviet Motives and Miscalculations: Acknowledge Khrushchev's role in the crisis, highlighting his motivations for placing missiles in Cuba, such as deterring US aggression and supporting Cuba. Discuss his miscalculations and underestimation of Kennedy's resolve.

Domestic Pressures and the Cold War Context: Briefly address the broader Cold War context and domestic pressures on both leaders, acknowledging their influence on decision-making without diminishing Kennedy's responsibility.

Conclusion

Reiterate the argument that while Kennedy's handling of the crisis itself showed restraint, his previous foreign policy decisions significantly heightened tensions with the Soviet Union and ultimately bear significant responsibility for precipitating the Cuban Missile Crisis. Briefly discuss the lasting impact of the crisis on US-Soviet relations and Kennedy's legacy.

Extracts from Mark Schemes

Analyse the extent to which President Kennedy was responsible for the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

It can be argued that President Kennedy was largely responsible for the onset of the crisis. The US people had been misled by his administration about the military imbalance between the superpowers. In the 1960 election campaign, he had spoken of a ‘missile gap’ in the Soviets’ favour whereas in fact it was to the US advantage. He had also ordered the largest peacetime expansion of US military power including nuclear forces. This included deploying, from 1961, intermediate-range Jupiter nuclear missiles in Turkey which could be regarded as provoking the USSR. Moscow suspected that Washington, with its nuclear superiority, was attracted by the idea of a nuclear strike first. Kennedy’s deployment of the Jupiter missiles was the main reason why Khrushchev sent missiles to Cuba.

Kennedy and his civilian advisers understood that the missiles in Cuba did not alter the strategic nuclear balance but still attempted to force their removal. The president issued an ultimatum to a nuclear power which immediately created a crisis that could have led to catastrophe. He ordered a blockade on Cuba, an act of war which brought the world to the brink of a nuclear confrontation. The Cubans willingly accepted Soviet weapons, so the Soviet’s deployment of the missiles was in accordance with international law. The blockade was illegal. Kennedy contemplated an invasion of Cuba to attack the Soviet missiles there. He also attempted to resolve a crisis he had largely created.

According to the version of events propagated by the Kennedy administration, Washington refused Moscow’s offer of 27 October for both sides to remove their missiles and instead forced a unilateral Soviet withdrawal. However, in the late 1980s the truth revealed that the crisis was resolved by a secret deal to remove both the Jupiter and the Cuban missiles. Kennedy in fact threatened to renege on it if the Soviets disclosed it. He did so for domestic politics and the maintenance of America’s image as the indispensable nation.

Khrushchev was also responsible as he miscalculated the effects of his actions and underestimated Kennedy who he believed was weak and inexperienced after the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion. He believed that Kennedy wanted to destroy the Castro regime. The Soviets wanted to deter US attacks, but they could have installed conventional weapons. It seems likely that Khrushchev wanted to appear to have greater military strength than the United States, particularly when U2 spy flights had shown that there was a missile gap in the US favour. Domestically, Khrushchev was under pressure to adopt a more hard-line approach to the West, and he needed to be successful to silence his critics. Appearing to defend the Cuban Revolution gave Khrushchev the opportunity to try to score a nuclear success over the Americans. He felt justified in his actions as the United States had stationed Jupiter missiles in Turkey. However, he underestimated the US reactions to threats in their own backyard and he also underestimated Kennedy.

Kennedy did not want to be accused of weakness at home nor to be seen as weak in deterring the communist threat. Many contemporaries praised him for standing up to the USSR. His insistence that Soviet missiles be dismantled and taken away from Cuba earned him widespread support. Those nuclear weapons were a direct threat to American cities. Some historians have admired Kennedy's restraint in ruling out the options of an air strike against the missile bases or a military invasion of Cuba.

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