Explain why the successor states of eastern Europe faced political problems in the 1920s.
Level
AS Level
Year Examined
2023
Topic
The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s
👑Complete Model Essay
Explain why the successor states of eastern Europe faced political problems in the 1920s.
Political Problems Faced by Eastern European Successor States in the 1920s
The aftermath of World War I saw the emergence of newly independent states in Eastern Europe, carved out from the remnants of fallen empires. However, their independence came with a unique set of political challenges that plagued them throughout the 1920s. These challenges, rooted in their history, ethnic complexities, and economic instability, hindered their transition to stable and prosperous nations.
Lack of Democratic Tradition and Experience
The newly established states of Eastern Europe lacked a history of democratic structures or republican governance. For centuries, they had been ruled by empires like the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires, where democracy was nonexistent. These nations, accustomed to authoritarian rule, were ill-prepared for the sudden shift to self-determination and democratic governance.
The notion of democracy, though lauded by figures like Woodrow Wilson, proved difficult to implement in a region unfamiliar with its principles and practice. Political leaders, long accustomed to receiving directives from imperial centers, struggled to adapt to the demands of democratic deliberation and decision-making.
Ethnic Divisions and Border Disputes
The successor states were characterized by significant ethnic diversity, a legacy of centuries of imperial rule. While the peacemakers at Versailles aimed to create ethnically homogenous states, the reality on the ground was far more complex. The principle of self-determination, while intended to grant autonomy to distinct national groups, inadvertently led to new tensions and conflicts.
For example, the creation of Czechoslovakia, while celebrated as a triumph for Czech and Slovak self-determination, brought with it a sizable German minority in the Sudetenland. This region, with its significant German population, became a source of tension and ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War II. Similarly, the Treaty of Neuilly (1919) adjusted Bulgaria's borders, creating resentment and irredentist claims against Greece, Yugoslavia, and Romania.
Economic Challenges and Instability
The war ravaged the economies of Eastern Europe. Infrastructure lay in ruins, agricultural production plummeted, and industrial output dwindled. This economic instability hindered the successor states' ability to establish stable governments and foster social cohesion.
Hyperinflation became a significant problem in countries like Germany and Austria, eroding public trust in the government and creating conditions ripe for extremism. The economic hardship and social unrest fueled political instability, making it difficult for fledgling democracies to take root.
Case Study: Hungary
Hungary exemplifies the challenges faced by these new states. Following a period of intense upheaval, including a brief communist revolution, Hungary opted for a return to monarchy. However, the absence of a king led to the establishment of a regency under Miklós Horthy. Horthy's rule, though technically not a monarchy, effectively functioned as a dictatorship.
Hungary's experience underscores the difficulties faced by Eastern European nations in navigating the transition to democracy. The lack of democratic traditions, coupled with economic instability and the influence of powerful conservative forces, hindered the development of a stable and democratic political system.
Conclusion
The successor states of Eastern Europe in the 1920s faced a myriad of political challenges that ultimately hampered their development. The absence of democratic traditions, coupled with significant ethnic tensions, economic turmoil, and the legacy of authoritarian rule, created a volatile and unstable environment. While some states, like Czechoslovakia, managed to establish functioning democracies for a time, the majority struggled to overcome these fundamental challenges. These difficulties ultimately contributed to the rise of authoritarianism, ethnic conflicts, and the outbreak of World War II, highlighting the fragility of peace and the complexities of nation-building in post-war Europe.
**Sources:**
Mazower, M. (1999). Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century.
Stavrianos, L. S. (2000). The Balkans Since 1453.
Note: History Study Pack Required
Score Big with Perfectly Structured History Essays!
Prepare effortlessly for your A/AS/O-Level exams with our comprehensive...
History Study Pack.
✅ 1200+ Model Essays: Master your essay writing with expertly crafted answers to past paper questions.
✅ Exam Boards Covered: Tailored materials for AQA, Cambridge, and OCR exams.
🍃 Free Essay Plan
Introduction
The successor states of Eastern Europe faced numerous political problems in the 1920s. These issues stemmed from a lack of democratic experience, ethnic divisions, economic struggles, and the absence of established political structures. This essay will explore why these factors proved so challenging for these newly formed nations.
Lack of Democratic Tradition
Absence of Democratic History: Eastern Europe lacked a history of democratic structures or republican government. Their populations were accustomed to rule by external empires and lacked experience with self-determination. The sudden shift to democracy proved difficult to navigate.
Inexperienced Leadership: Politicians were used to taking orders, not engaging in democratic debate and compromise. This inexperience often resulted in political deadlock and ineffective governance.
Ethnic Tensions
Wilsonian Self-Determination: Woodrow Wilson's aim of redrawing borders based on ethnicity, while well-intentioned, created new problems. Minorities found themselves in newly formed nations, leading to tensions and instability.
Minority Rights and Enclaves: Treaties aimed at protecting minorities often proved ineffective. "Enclaves" of ethnic groups within larger nations (Germans in Poland, Hungarians in Romania) led to resentment and calls for border revisions.
Punished Powers: Germany, Bulgaria, and Turkey, as defeated powers, were denied the same self-determination granted to others. This fueled resentment and contributed to later conflicts.
Economic Hardship
Post-War Devastation: World War I devastated the economies of Eastern Europe. Reconstruction efforts were hindered by a lack of capital, infrastructure damage, and the disruption of traditional trade networks.
Social Unrest: Economic struggles led to widespread poverty, unemployment, and social unrest. This instability made it extremely difficult to establish and maintain stable democratic governments.
Case Studies
Hungary: After a period of chaos, Hungary opted for a return to monarchy. The country became an authoritarian state dominated by the aristocracy.
Czechoslovakia: A notable exception, Czechoslovakia managed to function as a relatively successful democracy. This was likely due to a more homogeneous population and a stronger industrial base compared to its neighbors.
Conclusion
The political problems faced by Eastern European successor states in the 1920s were multifaceted. A lack of democratic experience, persistent ethnic tensions exacerbated by new borders, and severe economic difficulties created a volatile environment. These challenges, largely stemming from the legacy of World War I and the redrawing of the European map, would have long-lasting consequences for the region.
Extracts from Mark Schemes
Why the successor states of eastern Europe faced political problems in the 1920s
No history of democratic structure or of republican government. These newly defined geographic regions under newly formed governments were unaccustomed to deciding their own fate. These independent nations all tried democracy, regarded as the best system by which to introduce the principle of national self- determination to a new nation. However, in a region where democracy was unfamiliar, the system had many problems.
No traditional ruling group. The politicians of Eastern Europe had been handed their orders from the governments that had dominated them. They were not used to democratic deliberation and government within a democratic framework. Indecision on many issues led to chaos and inaction on the part of many Eastern governments.
Ethnic divisions. Woodrow Wilson wanted to re-draw the frontiers of eastern Europe so that all races ruled themselves. This was achieved to a certain extent, but it brought in its wake further problems. The peacemakers tried to protect minorities by putting clauses into the treaties forcing countries to treat minorities fairly. However, the Germans were not allowed self-determination. Many Germans found themselves living in Poland or Lithuania, and the German Sudetenland was made part of Czechoslovakia to give Czechoslovakia an industrial base. Anschluss with Austria was forbidden. Also, the Treaty of Neuilly in 1919 took Bulgarian areas, and gave them to Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania while the Treaty of Sèvres gave Turkish Smyrna to Greece. Like Germany, Bulgaria and Turkey were defeated powers, so they did not get self-determination. Eventually, internal conflicts stemming from new self-determination by national majorities arose from disaffected minorities who preferred the rule of neighbours. In particular, in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, there were ‘enclaves’ of minority races.
Economic difficulties made stable government a struggle.
Hungary experienced a great deal of instability during the inter-war years. After a period of chaos, it decided on monarchy, and Hungary became, in effect, a dictatorship run by the landed aristocracy.
Czechoslovakia proved the only nation in Eastern Europe able to function reasonably well as a democracy during the inter-war period.
Accept any other valid responses.