Which of the following caused the greater difficulty for early explorers? (i) Problems of navigation (ii) Conditions at sea
Early explorers faced numerous challenges in their voyages of discovery, with navigation and the harsh conditions at sea presenting significant obstacles. While both presented difficulties, conditions at sea arguably posed a greater challenge for early explorers due to their direct and often immediate impact on survival, ship safety, and the morale of the crew. This essay will explore the difficulties of both navigation and conditions at sea, ultimately arguing that the latter was a more significant obstacle for early explorers.

Problems of Navigation
Navigation in the pre-modern era was a complex and challenging endeavor. The limitations of cartography, with inaccurate maps and incomplete knowledge of the world, made it difficult to chart a course and stay on track. Finding latitude was possible using the stars, but fixing longitude remained a major problem until the invention of the chronometer in the 18th century. Early explorers relied on dead reckoning, using compass bearings and estimated distances, which could lead to significant errors and potential disaster.
Despite these shortcomings, early explorers did utilize some navigational advancements. The knowledge and techniques of Arab and Chinese mathematicians and navigators, notably the use of Arabic mathematical tables and the compass, were adopted by the Spanish and Portuguese, contributing to their success in navigating the oceans. However, navigating in uncharted waters, especially on the open sea or off coasts, remained a formidable challenge, filled with uncertainties and potential dangers.

Conditions at Sea
Conditions at sea could be incredibly harsh, posing constant threats to the well-being of explorers and their ships. Prevailing winds, while sometimes helpful, could also be fierce and unpredictable, pushing ships off course and making it difficult to maintain a steady journey. The vast stretches of open water made communication between ships on the same expedition difficult, hindering coordination and potentially isolating ships in distress.
The high seas and strong currents of certain routes, like the Cape Horn in South America, presented significant dangers, risking shipwrecks and loss of life. Long journeys, especially those venturing far from known shores, presented immense difficulties in maintaining fresh water and food supplies. The lack of refrigeration meant spoilage, leading to disease and starvation among the crew. Furthermore, the constant threat of scurvy, caused by vitamin C deficiency, was a major problem requiring knowledge of preventive measures and careful food preservation.
Maintaining crew morale on long journeys, often in cramped and arduous conditions, was a constant concern for captains. Disease, injury, exhaustion, and fear of the unknown could lead to mutiny, desertion, or loss of hope.
Finally, explorers faced the difficult task of harboring in uncharted waters. Identifying safe anchorages, obtaining fresh supplies, and navigating unfamiliar coastlines were daunting tasks that could easily turn perilous if the wrong decision was made.

Conclusion
While both navigation and conditions at sea presented significant challenges to early explorers, conditions at sea arguably had a greater impact on their success. The immediate dangers posed by storms, currents, disease, and lack of supplies had a direct and often immediate impact on survival, ship safety, and the morale of the crew. In contrast, while navigational errors could lead to disaster, they were typically less immediate and could be mitigated by careful planning and the use of available knowledge and tools. While navigation was crucial for charting a course, it was ultimately the harsh conditions at sea that posed the greatest threat to explorers' well-being and the success of their voyages.