The Rise of the Imperial Presidency in the 1960s and 1970s

The term ‘imperial presidency’, coined by historian Arthur Schlesinger in 1973, describes a presidency that operates beyond its constitutional limits, accumulating and exercising power in ways not explicitly granted by the Constitution. While the potential for such an imbalance of power was always present, the 1960s and 1970s witnessed a marked surge in presidential power, largely driven by the demands of foreign policy during the Cold War.

The seeds of this development were sown long before the 1960s. The New Deal era under President Franklin D. Roosevelt saw an unprecedented expansion of federal power in response to the Great Depression. This expansion, while necessary, set a precedent for increased executive authority in times of national crisis. World War II further solidified this trend, granting the president immense power to manage the war effort. This wartime precedent, coupled with the dawn of the nuclear age and the existential threat posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, created an environment where swift, decisive action, often undertaken unilaterally by the president, was deemed necessary.

The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 stands as a stark example. President John F. Kennedy’s decision-making process, while ultimately successful in averting nuclear war, highlighted the immense power wielded by the president, often without time for congressional consultation or approval. This pattern continued throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Lyndon B. Johnson’s escalation of the Vietnam War, initially authorized by the broadly written Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, proceeded with minimal congressional oversight. Similarly, Richard Nixon’s expansion of the war into Cambodia and Laos, as well as his covert operations in Thailand and Ethiopia, were conducted largely in secret, bypassing congressional channels.

This growing tendency toward unilateral action in foreign policy spilled over into domestic affairs. Nixon, for instance, pursued economic policies on his own initiative, even impounding funds to circumvent congressional measures he opposed. The Watergate scandal, though initially a botched attempt to cover up a politically motivated break-in, revealed a disturbing willingness on the part of the Nixon administration to use the instruments of state power for partisan ends. This further fueled concerns about an imperial presidency operating beyond the bounds of legal and ethical constraints.

While the Cold War and the perceived need for secrecy and swift action played a significant role in the rise of the imperial presidency, other factors were also at play. The personalities and ambitions of individual presidents were undoubtedly influential. Kennedy cultivated an aura of mystique and decisiveness around the presidency, while Johnson's domineering personality and Nixon's penchant for secrecy contributed to a climate of executive aggrandizement.

Moreover, the changing media landscape and the growth of the White House staff contributed to a more insular presidency. The increasingly adversarial relationship between the press and the White House, fueled in part by the Vietnam War, may have encouraged presidents to rely more heavily on their own advisors and operate with less transparency. The expansion of the White House staff, a development not foreseen by the Founding Fathers, provided presidents with a cadre of loyalists who often operated outside the traditional channels of government, further concentrating power in the executive branch.

In conclusion, the rise of the imperial presidency in the 1960s and 1970s was a complex phenomenon driven by a confluence of factors. While the Cold War and the perceived need for swift, decisive action in foreign policy played a significant role, the personalities of individual presidents, the changing media landscape, and the growth of the White House staff also contributed to the expansion of executive power. The legacy of this era continues to shape debates about the proper balance of power in American government.

**Bibliography**

Schlesinger, Arthur M. *The Imperial Presidency*. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004.
Beschloss, Michael R. *The Crisis Years: Kennedy and Khrushchev, 1960-1963*. Edward Burlingame Books, 1991.