Why was the Washington International Naval Conference held in 1921–22?

The Washington Naval Conference, held from November 1921 to February 1922, was a significant event in international relations during the early 20th century. Convened at a time of shifting global power dynamics and growing anxieties following the First World War, the conference aimed to address several key issues that threatened international stability. While general support for peace and disarmament provided a conducive backdrop, the specific motivations for the conference stemmed from a complex interplay of political, economic, and strategic concerns, particularly those of the United States.

One cannot ignore the general atmosphere of pacifism that permeated the post-war world. The unprecedented devastation and loss of life engendered by the First World War fostered a widespread yearning for lasting peace. This sentiment found expression in the burgeoning disarmament movement, which gained considerable traction in Europe and the United States. The devastation of the First World War (1914-1918) led many to believe that the world could not survive another such conflict. The horrors of trench warfare and the use of new technologies such as poison gas shocked the world.

In the United States, this movement drew strength not only from pacifist ideals but also from pragmatic concerns about the economic burden of maintaining a large military. The rise of women's suffrage in several Western nations added further impetus to the disarmament cause. Women, having witnessed the human cost of war, became vocal advocates for peace and disarmament. Their newfound political influence, particularly in the United States, exerted pressure on policymakers to pursue arms control as a means of preventing future conflicts. Furthermore, prominent religious groups, particularly Protestant denominations, lent their weight to the disarmament movement, framing it as a moral imperative and a reflection of Christian values. This confluence of public sentiment, political expediency, and moral conviction created a political climate in the United States that was highly receptive to the idea of naval disarmament.

Beyond the broader context of peace advocacy, the United States harbored specific geopolitical objectives that motivated its leading role in the Washington Conference. The US, having emerged from the First World War as a major naval power, was keen to consolidate its position, particularly in the Pacific. The conference provided a platform for the United States to assert its naval dominance while simultaneously curbing the ambitions of potential rivals. This strategic calculus was primarily directed at Japan, which had undergone significant naval expansion in the years leading up to 1921. The growth of Japan’s navy, coupled with its increasingly assertive foreign policy in China and the Pacific, raised alarm bells in Washington. American policymakers viewed Japan's growing military might as a potential threat to US interests in the region. The Washington Conference, therefore, offered a way to address these concerns through diplomacy rather than military confrontation.

Japan's growing influence in China was another pressing concern for the United States and other Western powers. The United States, a staunch proponent of the Open Door Policy, which advocated for equal trading rights for all nations in China, viewed Japan's ambitions in China with apprehension. The Open Door Policy, first articulated by US Secretary of State John Hay in 1899, aimed to prevent any single power from monopolizing trade with China. Japan's attempts to establish spheres of influence and secure economic dominance in China threatened this principle. The Washington Conference provided an opportunity to address this issue and reaffirm the Open Door Policy, thereby safeguarding Western economic interests in China.

The specter of a renewed naval arms race, reminiscent of the pre-World War I era, also loomed large over the conference. The naval rivalry between Great Britain and Germany in the early 20th century had contributed significantly to the tensions that eventually led to war. To avert a similar arms race, this time involving the United States and Japan, the conference sought to establish limits on naval construction. By setting quotas on warship tonnage and agreeing to restrictions on the development of certain types of vessels, such as battleships, the signatory nations hoped to prevent a destabilizing arms race that could escalate into conflict.

In conclusion, the Washington International Naval Conference was not solely the product of any one factor but rather the culmination of a complex interplay of forces. While the desire for peace and the burgeoning disarmament movement created a favorable climate for such a conference, the United States' strategic considerations played a pivotal role. Driven by concerns about Japan's growing naval power, its ambitions in China, and the potential for a destabilizing naval arms race, the United States seized the opportunity to shape the international order in a way that served its interests. The Washington Conference, therefore, stands as a testament to the complex interplay of idealism and realpolitik that shapes international relations.

Sources:
Erik Goldstein, “The Washington Conference 1921–22: A Reassessment,” in Erik Goldstein and John Maurer, eds., The Washington Conference, 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor (London, 1994)
Thomas Buckley, The United States and the Washington Conference, 1921–1922 (Knoxville, 1970).