Assess the view that women in UK society today are disadvantaged due to both capitalism and patriarchy.
OCR
A Level
2019
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Introduction
This essay will assess the view that women in UK society today are disadvantaged due to both capitalism and patriarchy. It will explore how this view is associated with Marxist and feminist approaches, particularly Marxist feminism. It will examine evidence from various spheres of UK society, including the workplace, families, and the mass media, to evaluate the extent to which women are disadvantaged and consider how different social groups might experience this differently.
Arguments in Support of the View
Capitalism and the Exploitation of Women
Marxist feminists argue that capitalism benefits from the exploitation of women. This can be seen in the unpaid domestic labour women perform, which supports capitalism by reproducing the workforce and maintaining the home, as argued by Benston (1972) and Dalla Costa and James (1972). This unpaid labour is essential to the functioning of capitalism but remains undervalued and unrewarded.
Furthermore, women are often relegated to lower-paying jobs and are more likely to be in precarious employment. This is linked to the concept of a "reserve army of labour" (Bruegel, 1974), where women are readily available to fill in when needed. Ansley's (1972) concept of "takers of shit" highlights the emotional labour women are expected to perform, which further contributes to their exploitation under capitalism.
Patriarchy and the Control of Women
Patriarchy, the system of male dominance, reinforces gender inequalities. Millett (1970) argues that patriarchy controls women through a range of societal structures and institutions, including the family, education, and the media. The family, as described by Delphy and Leonard (1992), is a site of women's oppression, where they are subjected to familiar exploitation.
This control is also evident in the gendered socialisation process, where girls and boys are taught different roles and expectations (Oakley, 1972). Women's lower pay and limited access to higher-paying jobs, often described as the "glass ceiling", can be understood as a consequence of both capitalism and patriarchy.
Evidence of Disadvantage
Statistical evidence from the UK shows that women earn less than men, are more likely to be in poverty, and are underrepresented in senior management positions. These inequalities can be attributed to both capitalist and patriarchal structures. Research on domestic violence, such as Johnson's (1995) study on patriarchal terrorism, further demonstrates the impact of patriarchy on women's safety and well-being.
Additionally, research on social mobility highlights how women are disadvantaged in accessing opportunities and upward social mobility due to factors like gender socialisation and occupational segregation (Li and Devine, 2010).
Critical Evaluation
While there is strong evidence to support the view that women are disadvantaged due to both capitalism and patriarchy, critics argue that this view is overly simplistic and fails to consider alternative explanations.
Alternative Explanations
Weber's dual labour market theory suggests that the labour market is segmented and that women are disproportionately concentrated in the secondary sector, which offers lower pay and less security.
Liberal feminism argues that gender inequality is primarily caused by discriminatory practices and that achieving equality is possible through legal reforms and individual action.
Functionalism, with its emphasis on social harmony, suggests that gender roles are beneficial for society and that women's choices play a role in their perceived disadvantage.
Hakim's (1991) preference theory posits that women's choices, such as prioritizing family over career, contribute to their economic disadvantage.
The New Right, with its emphasis on biological differences, argues that women's choices and preferences are rooted in their biology and that their disadvantage is not due to external factors.
Intersectionality
Intersectionality theory acknowledges that gender inequality is not experienced uniformly by all women and that other forms of inequality, like race, class, and sexuality, intersect with gender to create complex and multifaceted experiences.
Postmodernism
Postmodernist perspectives challenge the notion of a single, fixed understanding of women's disadvantage and argue that individual experiences are diverse and fluid.
Conclusion
The view that women in UK society today are disadvantaged due to both capitalism and patriarchy has merit. However, it is crucial to consider alternative explanations and the complexities of intersectionality. Further research is needed to address the multifaceted nature of women's experiences and to develop appropriate strategies for addressing these inequalities.
Are Capitalism and Patriarchy to Blame for Women's Disadvantage in the UK Today?
The view that women in the UK face disadvantage due to the intertwined forces of capitalism and patriarchy is a prominent perspective within feminist sociology. This essay will explore the ways in which these systems operate, drawing on evidence of gender inequalities in various spheres of British society. While acknowledging counter-arguments and alternative explanations, this essay will ultimately argue that both capitalism and patriarchy, particularly in their intersecting forms, remain significant contributors to women’s continued disadvantage.
Capitalism and the Exploitation of Women
Marxist feminists argue that capitalism inherently disadvantages women by exploiting their labour and reinforcing patriarchal structures. Ansley (1972) famously described women as "takers of shit," absorbing the frustrations of men exploited under capitalism. This exploitation manifests in various ways. Firstly, women are often relegated to low-paid, part-time, and insecure jobs within a secondary labour market, as highlighted by Bruegel's (1979) concept of women as a "reserve army of labour." This benefits capitalism by providing a cheap and readily available workforce.
Secondly, the capitalist system undervalues and often renders invisible the crucial unpaid domestic labour predominantly performed by women. Benston (1972) argued that this work is essential for maintaining the capitalist workforce, and Dalla Costa and James (1972) further emphasised its economic value, which remains largely unrecognised and unrewarded. This exploitation within both the paid and unpaid spheres reinforces women's economic dependence on men and limits their opportunities for social mobility.
Patriarchy and the Subordination of Women
Patriarchy, a system of male dominance and female subordination, intersects with capitalism to further disadvantage women. Millett (1970) highlighted the pervasiveness of patriarchal control in various social institutions, shaping power relations and limiting women's life choices. Walby (1990) expanded on this, identifying six structures of patriarchy, including those within the household, the workplace, and the state, all of which contribute to women's subordinate position.
Within families, as explored by Delphy and Leonard (1992), traditional gender roles and the unequal division of labour often result in what they termed "familiar exploitation." This can manifest in women performing the majority of childcare and housework, regardless of their employment status. Oakley's (1974) research on gender socialisation further demonstrates how girls are socialised from a young age into roles that emphasise domesticity and caregiving, shaping their aspirations and opportunities throughout life.
Intersecting Inequalities and Contemporary Evidence
It is crucial to acknowledge that experiences of disadvantage are not homogenous among women. Factors such as social class, ethnicity, and age intersect with gender to create unique disadvantages. For example, research by Li and Devine (2011) and the EHRC (2015) has highlighted significant gender disparities in social mobility, with women from certain ethnic minority groups facing compounded barriers. This intersectional perspective underscores the need to consider how different forms of inequality operate simultaneously.
Contemporary evidence from the UK continues to support the argument that both capitalism and patriarchy contribute to women's disadvantage. The gender pay gap persists, with women earning less than men across various occupations. Women remain under-represented in positions of power and leadership, encountering the metaphorically described "glass ceiling." Furthermore, statistics show that women are disproportionately affected by poverty, particularly in single-parent households, highlighting the economic vulnerabilities created by the intersection of gendered expectations and capitalist structures.
Critical Evaluation and Alternative Explanations
While the evidence supporting the impact of capitalism and patriarchy is compelling, it is important to consider alternative viewpoints. Some, like Hakim (2000), propose "preference theory," suggesting that women's choices, rather than structural constraints, explain occupational disparities. However, this overlooks the societal pressures and limited choices often faced by women. Others, such as Schlafly, draw on biological differences to justify traditional gender roles, arguments widely criticised for perpetuating harmful stereotypes.
Even within feminist thought, there are debates about the relative importance of capitalism and patriarchy. Some feminist perspectives, such as liberal feminism, advocate for incremental change within existing structures, focusing on legal equality and equal opportunities. However, Marxist and radical feminists argue that more fundamental societal transformations are necessary to dismantle the deeply entrenched systems of capitalism and patriarchy.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the view that women in the UK today are disadvantaged due to both capitalism and patriarchy remains a powerful and compelling argument. While alternative perspectives offer valuable insights, they often fail to fully account for the deeply ingrained structural inequalities that continue to shape women's lives. The evidence of enduring gender disparities in areas such as income, representation in leadership roles, and risk of poverty underscores the ongoing impact of these systems. Addressing women's disadvantage requires a multifaceted approach that tackles both the economic exploitation inherent in capitalism and the deeply rooted inequalities perpetuated by patriarchy. Only by dismantling these interlocking systems of oppression can we hope to achieve genuine gender equality in the UK.
Free Mark Scheme Extracts
The Interplay of Capitalism and Patriarchy in Gender Inequality
Candidates should demonstrate an understanding of the statement presented and its connection to the concepts of capitalism and patriarchy. They should be able to explain how this view aligns with Marxist and feminist perspectives, especially Marxist feminism.
While evidence of gender inequalities in the workplace is expected, candidates should be encouraged to explore other spheres of UK society, such as families, mass media, etc. Stronger answers will consider how women from different social groups (e.g., social classes, ethnic groups, age groups) experience disadvantage in unique ways and for varying reasons.
Supporting the Statement
Candidates may utilize the following to support the statement:
- Ansley (women as takers of shit): This can be linked to studies of domestic violence, such as Johnson on patriarchal terrorism or Stanko.
- Feeley (role of women in socializing children in capitalist ideology)
- Benston (role of women in supporting capitalism through unpaid domestic labor)
- Bruegel (women as a reserve army of labor)
- Dalla Costa and James (value to capitalism of unpaid domestic labor)
- Millett (control of women through patriarchy)
- Walby (structures of patriarchy)
- Delphy and Leonard (family as a site of women's oppression, familiar exploitation)
- Differences in gender socialization (e.g., Oakley)
- Statistical evidence on lower pay and exclusion of women from top jobs, which can be seen as benefitting both capitalism and patriarchy. This can be linked to concepts like the glass ceiling and occupational segregation.
- Research demonstrating women's higher risks of poverty are related to capitalism and patriarchy.
- Evidence of gender differences in social mobility and forms of social closure (e.g., Li and Devine, EHRC).
- Evidence concerning family life, e.g., studies of domestic labor and decision-making.
Critical Evaluation
Candidates may employ a variety of theoretical approaches in their critical evaluation:
- Weberian theory / dual labor market theory
- Liberal Feminism
- Black Feminism
- Functionalism / human capital theory (e.g., Parsons, Rastogi)
- Hakim / preference theory
- New Right (e.g., Schlafly or other biological determinist approaches)
- Intersectionality theory (importance of social class, ethnicity, and other forms of inequality intersecting with gender)
- Postmodernism
Some candidates may also use empirical evidence to question the extent to which women are actually disadvantaged, citing advances in the workplace and education or evidence that men are now disadvantaged in areas such as education or health.
Challenging the View
Candidates may challenge the view in several ways:
- By questioning whether both capitalism and patriarchy are responsible for gender inequalities or whether sociologists should emphasize one over the other.
- By considering alternative explanations of gender inequality, e.g., the workings of the labor market, women's lack of social capital, biological differences, etc.
- By questioning the extent to which women are disadvantaged, e.g., functionalist ideas of women being different but equal or evidence about male disadvantage.