Outline two ways in which women are disadvantaged compared with men in the workplace.
OCR
A Level
2020
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Women's Workplace Disadvantage: Two Key Areas
This essay will explore two key ways in which women are disadvantaged compared to men in the workplace. These are the persistent gender pay gap and the vertical and horizontal segregation of employment.
1. The Gender Pay Gap: A Persistent Inequality
The gender pay gap, the difference in average earnings between men and women, remains a stark reality in most developed nations. Even after accounting for factors like part-time work, it is consistently observed that women earn less than men.
a. Hourly Rates and Minimum Wage:Statistics from the Office for National Statistics (ONS) and the Fawcett Society reveal that, even when working the same hours, women earn significantly less than men. Furthermore, Oxfam highlights that a disproportionate number of women are employed at the minimum wage, reinforcing their economic vulnerability.
b. Maternity Leave and Its Impact:Research by UK Feminista demonstrates how time off for motherhood can have a detrimental impact on women's wages. Women are often penalised for taking maternity leave, experiencing reduced pay or even job loss upon their return. This 'motherhood penalty' further entrenches the gender pay gap, creating a cyclical disadvantage for women.
2. Segregation of Employment: Limiting Opportunities
The workplace is structured in ways that limit women's access to higher-paying and more prestigious positions. This segregation occurs both vertically, across different levels of occupations, and horizontally, across different industries.
a. Vertical Segregation: The Glass Ceiling and BeyondThe Fawcett Society's data reveals the alarmingly low representation of women on FTSE 100 boardrooms, demonstrating the existence of a 'glass ceiling' that hinders women's upward mobility. Further evidence from the Labour Force Survey (LFS) and the Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC) shows that men are overrepresented in senior management and professional roles, while women are disproportionately concentrated in lower-skilled positions. Some scholars, such as Savage, argue that women are less likely to climb the career ladder due to factors like unconscious bias and lack of mentorship.
b. Horizontal Segregation: Gendered Occupational PatternsThe ONS and the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) have documented a clear pattern of horizontal segregation, where women disproportionately dominate occupations in caring and leisure industries, while being under-represented in fields like construction, engineering, and IT. This segregation reflects societal stereotypes and reinforces the perception of these industries as "masculine" domains.
Conclusion: Interlocking Systems of Disadvantage
The gender pay gap and the vertical and horizontal segregation of employment are intrinsically linked, forming a complex network of disadvantage that hinders women's economic empowerment. This essay has highlighted the persistent inequalities that women face in the workplace, calling for continued efforts to address these issues and create a more equitable and inclusive environment for all.
(Note: This outline provides a framework for your essay. You can expand upon these points, add examples, and incorporate relevant sociological theories as you compose your essay.)
Disadvantage of Women in the Workplace
Despite advancements in gender equality, significant disparities persist between men and women in the workplace. This essay will examine two key ways in which women face disadvantages: vertical segregation, limiting their career progression, and pay disparities, resulting in financial insecurity and diminished economic power.
Vertical Segregation: A Barrier to Advancement
Vertical segregation refers to the unequal distribution of men and women across different levels of an organization. Evidence overwhelmingly demonstrates that women are disproportionately underrepresented in senior positions. For instance, the Fawcett Society reports that women hold a mere fraction of board positions in FTSE 100 companies. Similarly, data from the Labour Force Survey consistently shows a stark gender gap in management and senior roles, with men dominating these higher-paying, decision-making positions.
This phenomenon can be partly attributed to the "glass ceiling" effect, an invisible barrier that prevents women from reaching top leadership roles due to biases and discriminatory practices. Additionally, the "concrete ceiling" further hinders women from ethnic minority backgrounds who face compounded disadvantages. This lack of representation not only limits women's career aspirations but also perpetuates a cycle of inequality by depriving organizations of diverse perspectives and leadership styles.
The Gender Pay Gap: A Persistent Problem
Despite equal pay legislation, a significant gender pay gap persists in many societies. Data from the Office for National Statistics consistently reveals that women earn less than men, even when factors like education and experience are considered. This disparity is further exacerbated by the fact that women are overrepresented in low-wage jobs and more likely to work part-time, as highlighted by Oxfam.
Motherhood significantly contributes to the pay gap. Research by UK Feminista indicates that women experience a "motherhood penalty," with wages decreasing by 5% for every year they are absent from work due to childcare responsibilities. Furthermore, women who take time off for caring duties often face challenges in re-entering the workforce and securing promotions, further hindering their earning potential.
Conclusion
The workplace presents numerous challenges for women, with vertical segregation and the gender pay gap being two prominent examples. While progress has been made, achieving true gender equality requires addressing deeply ingrained societal norms, biases, and discriminatory practices. Policy interventions, such as mandatory pay gap reporting and increased investment in affordable childcare, are crucial in tackling these inequalities. Furthermore, promoting a culture of inclusivity and challenging gender stereotypes within organizations is essential to create a level playing field where women have equal opportunities to thrive and succeed.
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Gender Inequality in the Workplace
Responses may include the following:
Differences in Pay
• Differences in pay: may cover hourly rates (ONS, Fawcett Society), women more likely on minimum wage (Oxfam), the effect of time off for motherhood on subsequent wages (UK Feminista).
Vertical Segregation of Employment
• Vertical segregation of employment: less women as directors on FTSE 100 boards (Fawcett Society), more men in higher professional jobs, fewer women in management and senior positions (LFS, EHRC), female graduates more likely to work in lower skilled occupations than men. Candidates may also refer to evidence of a glass ceiling, glass elevator and/or concrete ceiling.
Horizontal Segregation
• Horizontal segregation e.g. women dominate occupations in caring and leisure industries (ONS, EOC) but under-represented in industries such as construction, engineering, IT etc.
Effects of Pregnancy on Job Prospects
• Effects of pregnancy on job prospects: women sacked or lose out on promotion or pay (UK Feminista), each year a mother is absent from work her wages will reduce by 5% (UK Feminista).
Other Factors
• Women less likely than men to climb career ladder (Savage).
• Extent of sexual harassment at work (Everyday Sexism Project/TUC, EHRC).
Theoretical Approaches
Some candidates may attempt to apply theoretical approaches to answering this question, these should be credited as long as they refer to ways in which women are disadvantaged in the workplace rather than merely explaining disadvantages. Examples might include Bruegel on women as a reserve army of labour, Walby on public patriarchy and employment, Barron and Norris on the dual labour market.