Explain the idea that youth subcultures are formed as an expression of masculine identity.
OCR
A Level
2024
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Youth Subcultures and Masculinity
This essay will explore the idea that youth subcultures are formed as an expression of masculine identity. It will examine how subcultures can provide a space for young men to negotiate their identity and assert their masculinity in a society that often presents conflicting messages about what it means to be a man.
The Anti-School Subculture
Willis’s study of the "lads" highlights how a subculture can emerge in opposition to the dominant values of education. The lads displayed a resistance to the perceived feminizing influence of school, with their anti-education stance being a way of asserting their masculinity.
Mac an Ghaill’s study further reinforces this idea by looking at "macho lads" within a comprehensive school. He found that a rejection of schoolwork and academic success was a way for these young men to maintain their masculinity in an environment that they perceived as overly feminine.
Reay also demonstrates the link between anti-education and masculinity, arguing that some young men deliberately underachieve to avoid being labelled as "feminine" or "soft."
Masculinity and Hyperheterosexuality
Archer & Yamashita’s concept of "hyperheterosexuality" sheds light on how some youth subcultures use exaggerated displays of heterosexuality to assert their masculinity. This can manifest through sexualised behaviour, misogynistic attitudes, and homophobic language.
Frosh’s research points out that education is often not seen as a masculine pursuit, with young men perceiving it as a female-dominated space. This can lead to a sense of alienation and a rejection of educational opportunities, contributing to the development of subcultures that affirm masculine identity outside of the school environment.
Subcultures and "Accomplishing Masculinity"
Messerschmidt’s concept of "accomplishing masculinity" provides a useful framework for understanding how young men use subcultures to construct and affirm their masculinity. He argues that masculinity is not a fixed trait but rather a social performance, and that subcultures offer different ways for young men to "do gender."
Miller’s "focal concerns" theory provides further insight into how subcultures can provide an avenue for young men to establish their masculinity through practices that emphasize excitement, trouble, toughness, and autonomy.
Male-Dominated Subcultures and Hypermasculinity
Hebdige’s work on the CCCS (Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies) explores the role of leisure subcultures, particularly football, in shaping masculine identities. He argues that these subcultures offer spaces for the enactment of "machismo" and the performance of exaggerated masculine traits.
Hall and Jefferson’s studies on the Teddy Boys further illustrate the link between youth subcultures and hypermasculinity. These subcultures emphasized physical strength, aggression, and conformity to traditional masculine norms, often rejecting the values of the dominant culture.
Sewell’s research on school subcultures highlights the prevalence of hypermasculinity among certain groups, particularly among those who resist the authority of teachers and peers. These subcultures often promote a code of conduct that values physical strength, toughness, and dominance, as well as a disdain for academic achievement.
Conclusion
In conclusion, youth subcultures can be understood as expressions of masculine identity, providing young men with spaces to negotiate their place in a complex and often contradictory social landscape. These subcultures offer a range of ways for young men to affirm their masculinity, from rejecting the dominant values of education to embracing hypermasculine behaviours. Understanding these subcultures is crucial for understanding the construction and performance of masculinity in contemporary society.
Youth Subcultures and Masculine Identity
Youth subcultures, often characterised by their distinctive styles, rituals, and values, have long been a subject of sociological inquiry. A key debate within this field concerns the extent to which these subcultures, particularly those dominated by young men, are formed as an expression of masculine identity. This essay will argue that while the relationship between youth subcultures and masculinity is complex and multifaceted, the desire to construct and negotiate masculine identities plays a significant role in their formation and evolution.
Resisting Hegemonic Masculinity through Subculture
Several sociologists argue that subcultures can be understood as a reaction against dominant or hegemonic forms of masculinity. Paul Willis's seminal work "Learning to Labour" (1977) examined the anti-school subculture of "the lads". Willis found that these working-class boys rejected the values of education, which they perceived as feminine and middle-class. Their subculture, with its emphasis on rebellion and "having a laff", offered an alternative space to construct a masculine identity based on resistance and working-class solidarity.
This theme of resistance is echoed in the work of Mairtin Mac an Ghaill, who studied a group of working-class boys he termed "the macho lads". Like Willis's "lads", Mac an Ghaill's subjects constructed their masculinity in opposition to the perceived femininity of school and the middle class. They embraced a hyper-masculine performance, valuing physical prowess, toughness, and heterosexuality.
Furthermore, Diane Reay's research on working-class boys' underachievement suggests that rejecting education can be a way for these boys to assert their masculinity. In a system where academic success is often coded as feminine, opting out of education can become a way of conforming to traditional gender norms.
Hypermasculinity and the Performance of Gender
Beyond resistance, some subcultures actively promote and celebrate hypermasculine ideals. Archer and Yamashita's study on masculinity and schooling in London highlights the role of "hyperheterosexuality" in shaping boys' identities. They found that boys often felt pressure to engage in risky sexual behaviours and boast about their conquests as a way of affirming their masculinity amongst their peers.
Similarly, Messerschmidt argues that for some young men, especially those lacking legitimate avenues for success, joining gangs can be a way of "accomplishing masculinity". Gangs provide a space where traditional masculine traits like aggression, dominance, and risk-taking are not only valued but celebrated, offering members a sense of belonging and purpose.
Leisure, Style, and the Construction of Masculinity
Youth subcultures often revolve around shared leisure pursuits, and these activities can be central to how young men negotiate their identities. Dick Hebdige, a key figure in the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS), examined how subcultures use style as a form of resistance. He argued that groups like punks and skinheads appropriated and subverted mainstream symbols, like clothing and music, to create their own distinct identities. While not always explicitly about masculinity, these stylistic choices can become ways for young men to signal their belonging to a particular group and express their interpretations of what it means to be masculine within that context.
Critique and Conclusion
While this essay has focused on male-dominated subcultures, it is crucial to acknowledge that girls and young women are also active agents in creating and shaping subcultural identities. Furthermore, not all male subcultures are inherently about masculinity. For instance, Miller's concept of "focal concerns" suggests that working-class subcultures, while often dominated by boys, are primarily driven by concerns like "toughness" and "smartness", which are not inherently tied to gender.
In conclusion, the relationship between youth subcultures and masculine identity is complex and cannot be reduced to a single explanation. While some subcultures emerge as a reaction against dominant forms of masculinity, others actively promote and reinforce traditional gender norms. It is through the interplay of resistance, performance, and the negotiation of social pressures that young men use subcultural participation to construct, challenge, and ultimately make sense of their identities within a broader social context.
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Male Subcultures and Education
There are a number of sociological perspectives on why some males may be resistant to education. These perspectives often focus on the role of subcultures and masculinity.
Anti-School Subcultures
Willis, in his study of "the lads", found that working-class boys often developed anti-school attitudes and behaviours as a form of resistance to the perceived constraints of education. They saw education as irrelevant to their lives and preferred to focus on "having a laugh" and asserting their masculinity.
Macho Lads and Anti-Education
Mac an Ghaill explored the concept of "macho lads" and found that these young men often rejected education as a way of distancing themselves from femininity and demonstrating their masculinity.
Reay further developed this idea by suggesting that anti-education can be seen as an expression of masculinity, particularly for working-class boys who feel they are excluded from the dominant educational discourse.
Hyperheterosexuality and Masculinity
Archer and Yamashita introduced the concept of "hyperheterosexuality" to explain how some young men use their sexuality to assert their masculinity and reject feminine traits associated with education.
Education and Masculinity
Frosh argued that education is often not seen as masculine and that this can lead some boys to reject it. This is particularly true in environments where traditional masculine values are valued.
Gangs and Masculinity
Messerschmidt examined the role of gangs in shaping masculinity. He suggested that gangs provide a space for young men to "accomplish masculinity" by engaging in behaviours such as violence and risk-taking, which are often seen as masculine.
Focal Concerns and Masculinity
Miller's concept of "focal concerns" helps to explain why some young men are drawn to subcultures that emphasise masculinity. These concerns include autonomy, excitement, trouble, and toughness.
Leisure Subcultures and Masculinity
Hebdige, a researcher associated with the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS), explored how leisure subcultures such as football can provide a way for young men to express their masculinity.
Male-Dominated Subcultures
Hall and Jefferson studied the emergence of male-dominated subcultures such as the Teddy Boys. They found that these subcultures offered young men a sense of identity and belonging, and reinforced traditional masculine values.
School Subcultures and Hypermasculinity
Sewell's work on school subcultures highlights the role of hypermasculinity in shaping the behaviour of some boys. He argued that certain subcultures within schools, often characterized by violence and aggression, can reinforce dominant masculine norms and lead to educational disengagement.