To what extent does gender socialisation explain why females commit less crime than males?
Cambridge
O level and GCSE
2023
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Outline for the Essay: To What Extent Does Gender Socialisation Explain Why Females Commit Less Crime than Males?
I. Introduction
A. Hook: State the main question being investigated.
B. Thesis statement: Briefly outline the extent to which gender socialisation contributes to the lower crime rates among females.
II. Arguments for Gender Socialisation as Explanation
A. Oakley's Socialisation Theories
- Canalisation and manipulation
- Aggression and activeness vs. caring and gentleness
B. Male Norms and Values
- Toughness, lack of emotion, aggression
- Closely related to criminal behavior
C. Family Ideology and Feminism
- Family-centered roles for females
- Not conducive to criminal behavior
D. Bedroom Culture
- Females spend more time in private sphere
- Less likely to commit crimes
E. Functionalism and Sex-role Theory
- Expressive role for females
- Less likely to engage in criminal behavior
F. Feminist Perspectives on Masculinity
- Hegemonic masculinity and criminal behavior
- Compliant femininity and reduced offending
G. Cult of Femininity Theory
- Beauty and appearance ideology
- Reduce likelihood of criminal activities
H. Parental Role Models and Peer Groups
- Boys imitate criminal fathers
- Female peer groups more conformist
I. Media Role Models and Peer Groups
- Glamorised criminal behavior
- Socialisation into criminal norms and values
III. Arguments Against Gender Socialisation Explanation
A. Biological Factors
- Testosterone levels and physical build
- Natural inclination towards criminality
B. Social Control Theory
- Females have less freedom at a young age
- Limited opportunities to commit crimes
C. Ladettes Phenomenon
- Females adopting masculine norms
- Increased criminal behavior
D. Rising Female Crime Rates
- Women entering the workplace
- Increased financial pressures
E. Chivalry Thesis
- Females historically committed more crimes
- Avoid detection due to societal perceptions
F. Opportunity Factors
- Females less likely to be in the workplace
- Limited chances for certain white-collar crimes
G. Cultural Restrictions and Material Deprivation
- Females less likely to be in public spaces
- Financial pressures drive some females to crime
H. Strain Theory and Status Frustration
- Males experience more anomie
- Young working-class males turn to crime
I. New Right Theory and Expressive Crimes
- Inadequate socialisation and criminal behavior
- Expressive crimes not related to gender socialisation
IV. Conclusion
A. Restate thesis statement.
B. Summarize key arguments for and against gender socialisation explanation.
C. Evaluate the extent to which gender socialisation contributes to the lower crime rates among females.
D. Discuss any limitations or areas for future research.
Gender Socialisation and Crime Rates: An Exploration
This essay will explore the extent to which gender socialisation can explain the stark difference in crime rates between males and females. While societal norms and expectations undoubtedly play a role, it is crucial to acknowledge that a singular explanation is insufficient. This essay will delve into various arguments, considering both the influence of gender socialisation and alternative perspectives.
Arguments for Gender Socialisation as a Key Factor
Many sociologists argue that the way we raise boys and girls directly contributes to differing crime rates. Oakley (1981), a prominent feminist sociologist, highlights the process of canalisation, where we direct children towards gender-specific toys and activities. Boys are often encouraged towards aggression and risk-taking, while girls are steered towards nurturing and domesticity. This difference in early socialisation could contribute to the association of males with criminal behaviour.
Furthermore, societal expectations, or norms and values, often link masculinity to traits like toughness and dominance, which can manifest as aggression and violence. Functionalist perspectives, particularly Parsons' sex-role theory (1955), suggest that men are socialised for the 'instrumental' role, focused on competition and achievement in the public sphere, while women inhabit the 'expressive' role, centred on caregiving and emotional support within the family. This division, according to functionalists, contributes to social stability but could also explain why males are more likely to engage in criminal activities.
Feminist perspectives further support this notion. Hegemonic masculinity, the dominant and idealised form of masculinity, often promotes aggression and control, potentially leading men towards criminal behaviour. Conversely, women are often socialised into a more passive and compliant femininity. McRobbie's concept of bedroom culture (1991) suggests that girls' leisure time is often confined to the private sphere, limiting their opportunities for criminal engagement compared to boys who are encouraged to occupy public spaces.
Challenges to the Gender Socialisation Perspective
While compelling, attributing the gender gap in crime solely to socialisation is reductive. Biological arguments propose that higher levels of testosterone in males contribute to increased aggression and risk-taking, potentially leading to a predisposition towards criminal behaviour.
Furthermore, social control theory, as proposed by Heidensohn (1985), posits that women experience greater social control throughout their lives. From a young age, girls often have stricter supervision and less freedom compared to boys, limiting their opportunities to engage in criminal activities.
Moreover, focusing solely on socialisation ignores the impact of socioeconomic factors. Strain theory (Merton, 1938) suggests that individuals experiencing strain between societal goals and their means to achieve them might resort to crime. Men, often burdened with the expectation of being the primary breadwinner, might experience greater strain, leading to higher crime rates. This perspective highlights the intersection of gender and social class in understanding criminal behaviour.
The Changing Landscape of Gender and Crime
Importantly, the landscape of gender and crime is not static. The rise of the 'ladette' culture (Jackson, 2006), where young women adopt traditionally masculine behaviours, challenges traditional gender roles and has been linked to an increase in female offending. Similarly, as women enter the workforce in increasing numbers, they encounter opportunities for white-collar crimes previously less accessible. This shift suggests that opportunity, rather than just socialisation, plays a crucial role.
Conclusion
While gender socialisation undoubtedly plays a significant role in shaping behaviours and expectations that contribute to the difference in male and female crime rates, it cannot fully explain the phenomenon. Biological factors, social control mechanisms, socioeconomic conditions, and evolving gender roles all contribute to the complex relationship between gender and crime. A comprehensive understanding requires considering this interplay of factors to gain a nuanced perspective on this multifaceted issue.
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To what extent does gender socialisation explain why females commit less crime than males?
Possible answers:
Arguments for:
• Oakley – argues that gender socialisation processes, such as canalisation and manipulation, teach girls to be caring, gentle, and maternal, while boys are taught to be aggressive and active which is more closely related to criminal behavior. Therefore, females commit less crime.
• Male norms and values learned through socialisation are often associated with criminal behavior, such as toughness, lack of emotion, and aggression. This socialisation explains the lower levels of offending among females compared to males.
• Family ideology influenced by feminism plays a role in socialising girls to believe their role is centered around the family and home, which is not conducive to criminal behavior.
• Bedroom culture, as described by McRobbie, suggests that females spend more time in the private sphere, which makes them less likely to commit crimes compared to males who are socialised to spend more time in the public sphere.
• Functionalism, specifically sex-role theory proposed by Parsons, argues that females, socialised to perform the expressive role, are less likely to engage in criminal behavior, unlike males socialised into the instrumental role.
• Feminist perspectives on masculinity suggest that societal pressure for males to conform to hegemonic masculinity can lead to higher levels of offending, while females are socialised into more compliant femininity.
• The cult of femininity theory posits that girls are socialised into an ideology of beauty and appearance, reducing the likelihood of engaging in criminal activities.
• Parental role models may influence boys to imitate criminal behavior if they see their fathers committing crimes, while this is less common among girls.
• Peer groups can influence criminal behavior, with female peer groups typically being more conformist compared to male peer groups which may exert pressure to engage in criminal activities.
• Media role models and representations can also socialise boys into accepting criminal norms and values through glamorised portrayals of criminal behavior.
• Any other reasonable response.
Arguments against:
• Biological factors, such as higher testosterone levels and physical build in males, may naturally incline them towards criminality compared to females.
• Social control theory by Heidensohn suggests that females have less freedom at a young age, limiting their opportunities to commit crimes.
• The ladette phenomenon, as studied by Jackson, indicates that as society becomes more equal, females adopting more masculine norms and values may lead to increased criminal behavior.
• Rising female crime rates contradict gender socialisation theories as women enter the workplace and face financial pressures.
• The chivalry thesis proposes that females may have historically committed more crimes than reported, but have avoided detection due to societal perceptions and manipulation of their femininity.
• Opportunity factors, such as females being less likely to be in the workplace, limiting their chances to commit certain white-collar crimes.
• Cultural restrictions on females in public spaces may limit their ability to commit crimes compared to males.
• Material deprivation and financial pressures may drive some females to commit crimes, regardless of their socialisation.
• Strain theory by Merton suggests that males may experience more strain to anomie due to societal expectations of being breadwinners, impacting their likelihood of committing crimes.
• Status frustration, as proposed by Cohen, suggests that young working-class males turn to crime due to frustration with their low societal status, which is not directly related to gender socialisation.
• The New Right theory by Murray suggests that inadequate socialisation, particularly in single-parent households without male role models, may contribute to male criminal behavior.
• Expressive crimes, often associated with females, are driven by emotions and factors unrelated to gender socialisation.
• Any other reasonable response.