Explain, using examples, the concept of values.
OCR
A Level
2020
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Explain, using examples, the concept of values.
This essay will define values, explain their relative nature and discuss the relationship between values and norms. It will further explore the concept of universal values, institutional values, cultural values, and provide examples to illustrate these concepts.
AO1: Knowledge and Understanding
Definition of Values
Values are fundamental beliefs that guide our actions and decisions. They are deeply held principles about what is desirable and worthwhile. They represent shared beliefs about what is good, right, and important within a society or group.
The Relative Nature of Values
Values are not absolute but are relative to culture, time, and context. What is considered valuable in one culture may not be in another, and what is considered important today may not be in the future. This is known as **cultural relativity**, a concept explored by anthropologist Margaret Mead. For example, Mead observed significant differences in gender roles and expectations across various cultures.
The Relationship Between Norms and Values
Values underlie norms, which are specific rules or expectations for behaviour. Norms are derived from values and reflect what is considered acceptable or unacceptable in a particular society. For example, the value of honesty may lead to the norm that lying is unacceptable, while the value of individual achievement may lead to the norm of striving for success.
Moral Values
Moral values, in particular, focus on beliefs about what is right and wrong. They shape our judgments about ethical behaviour and guide our decisions when faced with moral dilemmas. For example, the value of justice might lead us to believe that it is wrong to discriminate against others based on their race or gender.
AO2: Application
Universal Values
Some values are argued to be universal, meaning they are shared across cultures and societies. Examples include the value of human life, good health, and respect for others. These values are often seen as essential for the functioning of any society.
Institutional Values
Values are also embedded within institutions, such as education, religion, and the workplace. For example, the education system values academic achievement, while the workplace may value productivity and efficiency. These institutional values shape the norms and expectations within those specific environments.
Cultural Values
Values are often associated with specific cultures and nationalities. For example, British values are often described as including respect for the law, tolerance of others, and freedom of speech. These cultural values influence the norms and expectations within a particular society.
Examples of Cultural Relativity
Mead's study of the Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli tribes in New Guinea demonstrated the cultural relativity of values. She found that the Arapesh valued cooperation and gentleness, the Mundugumor valued aggression and dominance, and the Tchambuli exhibited contrasting gender roles compared to Western cultures. These findings highlight the diversity and relativity of values across different cultures.
Theories of Values
Functionalism, for example, argues that shared values are essential for maintaining social order and stability. This perspective emphasizes the importance of value consensus for the functioning of society.
In conclusion, values are fundamental beliefs that guide our behaviour and are shaped by culture, context, and institution. Understanding the concept of values is crucial for understanding the workings of society and the diversity of human experiences.
What are Values?
Values are fundamental and enduring beliefs about what is considered important or desirable within a society or social group. They serve as guiding principles that shape our attitudes, behaviors, and judgments. Values are not static; they evolve over time and vary across cultures, reflecting the diverse perspectives and experiences of different societies.
The Relative Nature of Values
It is crucial to acknowledge that values are not universal but rather culturally relative. This means that what is considered important or desirable in one culture may not hold the same significance in another. For instance, while individualism is highly valued in Western societies, collectivism, where the needs of the group are prioritized over individual desires, is more prominent in many Eastern cultures.
Anthropologist Margaret Mead's research on cultural variation provides compelling evidence for the relativity of values. Mead's comparative studies of three New Guinean tribes revealed stark differences in gender roles and behaviors. In the Arapesh tribe, both men and women exhibited nurturing and cooperative traits, while the Mundugumor displayed aggression and competitiveness, regardless of gender. The Tchambuli exhibited a reversal of traditional Western gender roles, with women being dominant and assertive, while men were more passive and emotionally expressive. Mead's work demonstrates that values concerning gender are not biologically determined but are socially constructed and vary significantly across cultures.
Examples of Values
Universal values, while subject to cultural interpretations, represent shared ideals that transcend cultural boundaries. These include the value of human life, good health, peace, and justice. For example, most societies place a high value on preserving human life, as reflected in their laws and moral codes.
Institutional values are embedded within specific social institutions, such as the education system, the workplace, or religion. For instance, the education system often promotes values such as achievement, hard work, and critical thinking. Similarly, workplaces may prioritize values like teamwork, innovation, and customer satisfaction. Religious institutions typically instill values related to faith, morality, and compassion.
National or cultural values often reflect a shared history, identity, and set of beliefs. For example, British values, as defined by the UK government, include democracy, the rule of law, individual liberty, and tolerance.
The Relationship Between Norms and Values
Norms are social rules and expectations that guide behavior within a particular group or society. They are often rooted in underlying values. For instance, the norm of queuing in some cultures reflects the values of orderliness, fairness, and respect for others' time.
Theoretical Perspectives on Values
Functionalist sociologists emphasize the importance of value consensus, or shared values, for societal stability and cohesion. They argue that shared values provide a common ground for social interaction and cooperation. When there is a breakdown in value consensus, it can lead to social conflict and instability.
Conclusion
Values are essential components of culture and society, shaping our beliefs, behaviors, and interactions. They are relative, evolving, and vary significantly across cultures. Understanding the concept of values is crucial for comprehending the complexities of human behavior and social life.
Free Mark Scheme Extracts
AO1: Knowledge and understanding
The following list is indicative of possible factors/evidence that candidates may refer to but is not prescriptive or exhaustive:
- Definition may include reference to general principles / shared beliefs and/or what is desirable and worthwhile.
- Further explanation may refer to the relative nature of values: culture / context bound; the relationship between norms and values; moral values – beliefs about what is right and wrong.
AO2: Application
The selected knowledge/examples should be directly related to the specific question.
Award 1 mark for each example and 1 mark for any relevant explanation of values (NB – the explanation doesn’t have to link directly to the example(s) provided).
Examples and explanations may include:
- Universal values (e.g. value of human life and good health).
- Values may be linked to a specific institution – e.g. The values embedded in the education system or workplace, or religion.
- Values related to specific cultures / nationalities; e.g. British values.
- Examples may link norms to values.
- Examples of cultural relativity in relation to values (E.g. Mead).
- Explanation of examples may make links to theory (e.g. functionalism – value consensus).